An Agglomeration of Early Middle Ages: Medâ'in

Yıl 2014, Cilt: 78 Sayı: 281, 1 - 40, 01.04.2014

Abdulhalik Bakır Ahmet Altungök

https://doi.org/10.37879/belleten.2014.1

Öz

The group of the cities of Medâ’in, the administrative capital of the Sassanid Empire from the early Middle Ages to the collapse of this empire, is one of the biggest metropolises of the antiquity and of the Middle Ages. The group of the cities of Medâ’in, consisting of many cities and towns built in different sizes and various times, has a diverse demographic mosaic. This group of the cities, built on the bank of Tigris, at a point where Tigris and Euphrates are very close, is an important economic centre due to its agricultural and commercial intensity, and also has a modern city appearance with the traces of the different cultures due to its palaces, mansions, and various architectural style. This group of the cities, having been capital to the many empires in Mesopotamia, had become the heart of the Middle East thanks to its politic and administrative importance. This group of cities, a junction point of the routes between East and West, could preserve its importance until the Abbâsîd Period, but lost its dynamics after the establishment of Baghdad by the Abbâsîds in the same period.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Medâ’in, Sâssânîds, Tisfun, Ctesiphon, Tigris

Erken Ortaçağların Şehirler Topluluğu: Medâ’in

Öz

Erken Ortaçağlar’ın başından Sâsânî imparatorluğunun yıkılışına kadar bu imparatorluğun yönetimsel başkenti olan Medâ’in şehirler topluluğu, İlkçağ ve Erken Ortaçağların en büyük metropollerinden bir tanesidir. Farklı büyüklüklerde ve değişik zamanlarda inşa edilmiş olan şehir ve kasabalardan meydana gelen Medâ’in şehirler topluluğu farklı bir demografik mozaiğe sahipti. Dicle ve Fırat nehirlerinin birbirine en yakın olduğu noktada Dicle nehrinin kenarına kurulmuş olan bu şehirler topluluğu, sahip olduğu tarımsal ve ticari yoğunluğundan dolayı önemli bir ekonomik merkez olma özelliğinin yanında; sarayları, köşkleri ve farklı mimari yapılarıyla çok faklı kültürlerin izlerini taşıyan modern bir görünüme sahip bir şehirdi. Mezopotamya toprakları üzerinde kurulmuş birçok imparatorluğa başkentlik yapmış olan bu şehirler topluluğu siyasi ve idari açıdan Ortadoğu’nun kalbi konumunda olmuştur. Doğu ve Batı arasında uzanan yolların kesişme noktasında olan bu şehirler topluluğu sahip olduğu önemini Abbâsîler dönemine kadar koruyabilmiş ve yine bu dönemde Abbâsîler tarafından kurulan Bağdâd şehrinden sonra bütün canlılığını kaybetmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Medâ’in, Sâsânîler, Tisfun, Ctesiphon, Dicle Nehri

Kaynakça

• Abdi, Kamyar-Pollock, Susan-Bernbck, Reinhard: “Fars Archaeology Project 2003: Excavati- ons At Toll-e Bashi”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XLI, London 2003, p. 339–344.
• Abdulhamid, Sa’d Zağlul, Fi Tarihi’l-Arab ve’l-İslam, Beyrut (Trz).
• Alizade, Said, Ali Rıza Pehlevani, Ali Sadrnia, Iran a Chronological History, (yay. By Authors), Tahran 2002.
• Altungök, Ahmet, Sâsânîler Dönemi Türk-Fars İlişkileri, (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Elazığ 2006.
• Avcı, Casim, TDV İslam Ansiklopedisi, Medâ’in Maddesi, (yay. Türkiye Diyanet Vakfı), Ankara 2003, c. 28, s. 289.
• Âyetullâhi, Habibullâh, The Book of Iranian: The History of Iranian Art, (Ter. Shermin Haghshenās), (yay. The Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance), Tahran 2003.
• Bâbân, Cemâl, Usûlu Esmâ’i’l-Müdün ve’l-Mevâki’ el-Irakiyye, Bağdâd 1989.
• Babayar, Gaybullah, “Göktürk Kağanlığı Döneminde Batı Türkistan Yönetimi”, Türkler, c. I, (yay. Yeni Türkiye Yayınları), Ankara 2002, s. 107–115.
• Badian, E, Moor, J, “Alexander in Iran”, The Median and Achaemenian Periods the Cambridge History of Iran 2 (Edt. William Bayne Fisher, İlya Gershevitch), Cambridge University Pres, 1985.
• Bakır, Abdulhalik, Ortaçağ İslam Dünyasında Itriyat, Gıda, İlaç Üretimi ve Tağşişi, (yay. Bizim Büro Basımevi), Ankara 2000.
• Bakır, Abdulhalik, Hz. Ali ve Dönemi, (yay. Bizim Büro Basımevi), Ankara 2004.
• Bakır, Abdulhalik, Ortaçağ İslam Dünyasında Tekstil Sanayi Giyim-Kuşam ve Moda, (yay. Bizim Büro Basımevi), Ankara 2005.
• Ball, Warwick, “Some Rock-Cut Monuments in Southern Iran” Iran (The British Institute of Persi- an Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XXIV, London 1986, pp. 95–116.
• Bayartan, Mehmet, “Tarihi Coğrafya Çalışmaları Açısından Şehir ve Osmanlı Şehri”, İÜ Ede- biyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Dergisi, sy. 13, s. 85–92, İstanbul 2005.
• el-Bekrî, Mu’cem mâ İsta’cem min Esmâi’l-Bilâd ve’l-Mevâzi’, (Thk. Mustafa es-Sakka), Beyrut 1983.
• el-Belâzûrî, Fütûhu’l-Büldân, (Çev. Mustafa Fayda), (Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları), An- kara 1987.
• Benjamin, G. W. S, Persia, (yay. Unwin), London 1891.
• Behnam, A, Temeddün-i İranî, Tahran 1337.
• Bivar, A. D. H, “The History of Eastern Iran” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edit-Ehsan Yarsha- ter), V. 3, Cambridge University Pres, 2000
• Bivar, A. D. H, “The Political History of Iran Under the Arsacids”, (Ed-E Yarshater) The Camb- ridge History of Iran, Vol. 3 (1): The Seleucid, Parthian and Sâsânîan Periods, Cambridge Univer- sity Press, 1983.
• Bosworth, C. E, “The Heritage of Rulership in Early Islamic Iran” Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XI, London 1973, pp. 51-62.
• Bosworth, C. E, “Iran And the Arabs Before Islam” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edit-Ehsan Yarshater) V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000
• Bozkurt, Nebi, T. D. V. İslam Ansiklopedisi, İpek Yolu Maddesi, (Türk Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları), İstanbul 2000, c. XXII, s. 370-371.
• Brock, Sebastian P, “Christians in the Sâsânîan Empire”, Syriac Perspectives on Late Antiquity VI, (yay. Ashgate Publishing), Hampshire 1985.
• Browne, Edward G, A Literary History of Persia”, (Edt. Caro Owen Miniasian), (yay. Curzon Press), London 1908.
• Buck, Cristopher, “The Universality of the Church of the East” The Journal of the Assyrian Aca- demic Society, (yay. Assyrian Community), Chicago (Trsz), s. 54–95.
• Bulliet, Richard W, “New Bahar and the Survival of Iranian Buddhism”, Iran (The British Institu- te of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XIV, London 1976, pp. 140-151.
• Campbell, Brian, “The Severan Dynasty”, The Cambridge Ancient History: The Crisis of Empire, A.D. 193–337, V, XII, (Edited by Alan K. Bowman, Peter Garnsey and Averil Cameron), Cambridge University Pres, 2008, pp. 1–27.
• Chehabi, H. E, “From Revolutionary Tasnif to Patriotic Surud”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XXXVII, London 1999, pp. 143-154.
• Childe, Gordon, Kendini Yaratan İnsan, (Varlık Yayınları), İstanbul 1978.
• Coz, Raymond le, History of the Church of the East: Christians Iraq, Iran and Turkey, (Rev. George Yana), Paris 1995.
• Crona, Patricia, “Kavad’s Heresy and Mazdak’s Revolt”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Stu- dies), British Academy Pres, Volume-XXIX, London 1991, pp. 21-42.
• Dalby, Andrew, Dictionary of Languages, Columbia University Press, 2004.
• Dignas, Beate-Winter, Engelbert, Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• Dodgeon, Michael H. - Lieu, Samuel, N.C., The Roman Eastern Frontier and the Persian Wars, (yay. by Routledge), London and New York 1994.
• Ed-Dûrî, Abdulaziz, T.D.V. İslam Ansiklopedisi, Enbar Maddesi, (Türk Diyanet Vakfı Yayınları), İstanbul 1995, c. XI, s. 171.
• Eilers, Wilhelm, “Iran and Mesopotamia” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edt-Ehsan Yarshater) V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 481-504.
• Elman, Yaakov, The Babylonian Talmud in Its Historical Context, (yay. Yeshiva University Pres), New York 2005.
• Ferguson, James, “Rome and Parthia: Power Politics and Diplomacy Across Cultural Frontiers”, The Centre for East-West Cultural and Economic Studies Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Bond University Press, Australia, No. 12, December, 2005, pp. 1-39.
• Frye, R. N, “The Political History of Iran Under The Sâsânîans” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edt-Ehsan Yarshater) V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 116-180.
• Frye, R. N., The Heritage of Persia, (yay. Weidenfeld and Nicolson Published), London 1962.
• Furan, Raymond, İran, (Trc. G. Kemali Söylemezoğlu), (yay. Hilmi Kitabevi), İstanbul 1943.
• Garsoian, Nina, “Byzantium and the Sâsânîans” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edit-Ehsan Yars- hater) V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 568–592.
• Gartwaite, Gene R: The Persians, Blakwell Publishing, Oxford 2005.
• Gibbon, Edward, Henry Hart Milmana, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, V. I, Philadelphia 1868.
• Girişmen, Roman, İran ez Aghaz ta İslam, (Çev. Muhammed Mu’in), Tehran 1336.
• Girişmen, Roman, Iran from the Earliest Times to the Islamic Conquest, (yay. Harmondsworth), Pen- guin 1954.
• Grantovski, E. A, Tarih-i İran Zaman-ı Bastan ta Emruz, (Ter. Keyhüsrev Kişaverzi), Tahran 1359.
• Grenard, Fernand, Asya’nın Yükselişi ve Düşüşü, (Çev. Orhan Yüksel), (MEB yay), İstanbul 1992.
• Günay, Ünver-Güngör, Harun, Başlangıçtan Günümüze Türklerin Dini Tarihi, (Ocak Yayınları), İs- tanbul 2003.
• Hakikat, Rafi, Tarih-i Kumis, Tahran 1362.
• Halife B. Hayât, Tarihu Halife b. Hayât, (Çev. Abdulhalik Bakır), (yay. Bizim Büro Basımevi), Ankara 2008.
• Haussig, Hans Wilhelm, İpek Yolu ve Orta Asya Kültür Tarihi, (Çev. Müjdat Kayayerli), (Geçit Ya- yınları), Kayseri 1997.
• Helms, s. W., V.N., Yagodin, A.V.G., Betts, G. Khozhaniyazov and F. E. Kidd: “Five Seasons of Excavations in the Tash-K’irman Oasis of Ancient Chorasmia, 1996–2000. An İnterim Report”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XXXIX, London 2001, pp. 119–144.
• Herper, Oliver, “Potrait of a King”, The Metropolitan Museum of Art BULLETİN, Ekim, 1966.
• Hermann, Georgina; Kurbansakhatov, K., Simpson, Stjohn, “The International Merv Project. Preliminary Report on the Sixth Season”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XXXVI, London 1998, pp. 53–76.
• Heyd, Wilhelm, Yakın Doğu Ticaret Tarihi, (Çev. Enver Ziya Karal), Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayın- ları, Ankara 2006.
• Houtsma, M. Th, “Al-Madâ’in”, E. J. Brill’s First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936, C. IV, (yay. Brill Publishing), Leiden 1987, s. 75–82.
• Houtsma, M. Th, “Mazdak”, E. J. Brill’s First Encyclopaedia of Islam 1913–1936, C. IV, (yay. Brill Publishing), Leiden 1987, s. 430–433.
• Hurc, Ramazan, İslam Tarihin’de Dört Halife Dönemi, Elazığ 2003.
• Faria, Carlos Ramirez, Concise Encyclopaedia of World History, Atlantic Publisher, Hardcover 2007.
• İbnu’l Belhî, Farsnâme, (Tashih ve sunuş: Guy Le Strange-Reynold Elen Nicolsen), Tahran 1339.
• İbnu’l Belhî, “Farsnâme”, (Çev. Abdulhalik Bakır-Ahmet Altungök), Ortaçağ Tarih ve Medeniyetine Dair Çeviriler I, (yay. Bizim Büro Yayınevi), Ankara 2008, s. 23-148.
• İbnu’l Fakîh, Mutasaru Kitabi’l-Büldan, Leiden 1302.
• İbnu’l Havkal, Muhammed, Suretü’l-Arz, (Çev. Dr. Cafer Şiar), Tahran 1338.
• Kaegi, Walter Emil, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge University Press, 2003.
• Kafesoğlu, İbrahim, Türk Milli Kültürü, Boğaziçi Yayınları, Ankara 1988.
• Kalmin, Richard, Jewish Babylonia Between Persia and Roman Palestine, Oxford Universty Press, 2006.
• Karakaş, Mehmet, “Tarihsel Gelişim Sürecinde Kent Kısıtlı Tarihsellik Anlayışı Üzerine Eleş- tirel Bir Yaklaşım”, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, C. III, s. I, Yakındoğu Üniversitesi Yayınları, Haziran, 2001.
• Karakuyu, Mehmet, “Tarihi Şehir Coğrafyası Çalışmalarında Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Teknolo- isinin Kullanımı: Manisa Örneği” 4. Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Bilişim Günleri, 13-16 Eylül 2006, Fatih Üniversitesi, İstanbul.
• Keall, E. J., “Qalah-ı Yazdigird” Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, Volume-V, London 1967, pp. 99-122.
• Keall, E. J., “After Alexander”, The Encyclopedia of Ancient Civilizations, (Edt. Arthur Cotterell), Windward Publishing, London 1980.
• Komisyon, Büyük Larousse Sözlük ve Ansiklopedisi, Milliyet Yayınları. İstanbul 1986.
• Kopanski, Ataullah Bogdan, “The Nazarean Legacy: Religious Conflict in Pre-lslamic Arabia as Seen through Greco-Roman Eyes” The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences 15:2, (The International Institute of Islamic Thought Publishing), Herndon, (Trsz), pp. 1-23.
• Köroğlu, Kemalettin, Eski Mezopotamya Tarihi, Başlangıcından Perslere Kadar, İletişim Yayınları, İs- tanbul 2009.
• Köroğlu, Kemalettin, “Tarih Öncesinden Perslere Kadar Mezopotamya“, Toplumsal Tarih, Aylık Tarih Dergisi, Sayı 149, Mayıs, Tarih Vakfı Yurt Yayınları, İstanbul 2006, s. 16-27.
• Kristensen, Artur, İran der Zaman-i Sâsânîyan, (Trc. Raşid Yasemî), Tahran 1368.
• Kudama B. Ca‘fer, Kitâbu‘l-Harac ve Sınâ‘atü‘l-Kitâbe, (Thk. Muhammed Hüseyin ez-Zebidî), Bağdâd 1981.
• Lang, David M, “Iran, Armenia and Georgia” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edit-Ehsan Yarsha- ter), V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 505–536.
• Lerner, Jeffrey D. The Impact of Seleucid Decline on the Eastern Iranian Plateau, Stuttgart, Franz Stei- ner Verlag, Stuttgard 1999.
• Malcolm, Sir John, The History of Persia from the Most Early Period to Present Time, V. I, Printed by William Clowes, London 1829.
• Menasce, P. J. de, “Din-i Mesih der İran Ahd-i Sâsânî”, Temeddün-i İranî, (Çev. A. Behnam), Tahran 1337, s. 178–183.
• Meşkür, Cevad, Tarih-i İran Zemin, Tahran 1366.
• Missiou, A, “The Helenistic Period”, A History of Ancient Greek: From the Beginnings to Late Antiquity, (Edt. A. F. Christidis), Cambridge University Pres, New York 2007, s. 325–341.
• Morgan, P. H, “Archaeological Reports Some Remarks on a Preliminary Survey in Eastern Fars” Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XLI, London 2003, pp. 323–338.
• Morony, Michael G, “Continuity and Change in The Administrative Geography of Late Sâsânîan and Early Islamic Al-Iraq”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XX, London 1980, pp. 1–50.
• Morony, Michael G, “The Effects of the Muslim Conquest on the Persian Population of Iraq’”, Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XIV, London 1976, pp. 41–60.
• Mousavi, Ali, “A Survey of the Archaeology of the Sâsânîan Period During the Past Three Decades”, Los Angeles County Museum of Art e-SÂSÂNÎKA 1, (2008).
• Muir, Sir William, The Caliphate: Its Rise, Decline and Fall from Original Sources, Publisher John Grant, Edinburg 1924.
• Nefîsî, Said, Tarih-i Temeddün-i İran-i Sâsân, Tahran 1331.
• Neusner, Jacob, A History of Jews in Babylonia: The Parthian Period, I, (Published by E. J. Brill), Leiden 1969.
• Nicolle, David, Sassanian Armies: the Iranian Empire Early 3rd to mid-7th Centuries AD, Montvert Publishing, New York 1996.
• Ortaylı, İlber, Türkiye İdare Tarihine Giriş, Turhan Kitabevi, Ankara 1996.
• Öztuna, Yılmaz, Büyük Türkiye Tarihi, Ötüken Yayınevi, İstanbul 1977.
• Rawlinson, George, A Manuel of Ancient History from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Sassanian Empire, Oxford Universty Press, Second Edition, (Trz)
• Reisneya, Rahim, Azerbaycan der Seyr-i Tarih-i İran, Tahran, (Trz).
• Rennell, James, The Geography System of Herodotus Examined and Explained, V. I, Rivington Publis- hing, London, 1830.
• Richter, Lutz, “Amir-Malik-Shahansh” Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Aca- demy Pres, V. XVIII, London 1980, pp. 83-102.
• Rudolph, Kurt, Gnosis; The Nature and History of Gnosticism, (yay. The Cromwell Press), Edinburgh 1983.
• Russell, James R, “Christianity I. in Pre-Islamic Persia: Literary Sources,” Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. V, p. 525-526.
• Scheidel, Walter, “ The Roman Slave Supply”, (Edt: Keith Bradley and Paul Cartledge; The Cambridge World History of Slavery, 1: The Ancient Mediterranean World.), Stanford University, May 2007, pp. 1-22.
• Shabani, Reza, Iranian History at a Glance, (Çev. Mahmud Farrokhpey), Alhoda International Publisher, Tehran 2005.
• Shalem, Avinoam: “The Fall of Al-Madain: Some Literary References Concerning Sâsânîan Spoils of War in Mediaeval Islamic Treasuries” Iran (The British Institute of Persian Studies), British Academy Pres, V. XXXII, London 1994, pp. 77-82.
• Spawforth, A. J. S, The Court and Court Society in Ancient Monarchies, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
• Spek, R J Bert van der, Feeding Hellenistic Seleucia on the Tigris And Babylon, Publisher Wolters-No- ordhof, Athens 2004.
• Söylemez, M. Mahfuz, Bilimin Yitik Şehri Cündişapur, Araştırma Yayınları, Ankara 2003.
• Süleymanova, Sevda, “Kafkasya ve Avarlar”, (Çev. Bilgehan A. Gökdağ), Türkler, (yay. Yeni Türkiye Yayınları), Ankara 2002, c. II.
• Sykes, Sir Percy, History of Persia, V. I, Routletge Curzon Publishing, London and New York 2004.
• Togan, Zeki Velidi, Umûmi Türk Tarihine Giriş, Enderun Kitabevi, İstanbul 1981.
• Toteva, Galya D, “Pers Kentleri ve Sanatı-On Binlerin Düşü”, Arkeoatlas 6 (Edt. N. Karul), Riz- zoli Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2007, s. 36-53.
• Treadgold, Warren T.A., History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, Ca- lifornia 1997.
• Vaux, William S W, Ancient History from the Monuments; Persia, the Earliest Period to the Arap Conquest, New York 2005.
• Watson, William, “Iran And China” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edt-Ehsan Yarshater), V. 3, Cambridge University Press, 2000, pp. 537–558.
• Walker, Joel, “Art of the Sâsânîan Empire”, American Journal of Archaeology, Boston University Pres, Volume 111, No. 4, October, 2007, pp. 795-801.
• Wiesehöfer, Josef, Antik Pers Tarihi, (Çev. M. Ali İnci), Telos Yayıncılık, İstanbul 2003.
• Yakubî, Ahmed bin İshak, Tarih-i Yakûbî, C. I, (Trc. Muhammed İbrahim Ayeti), (yay. İntişarat-ı İlmî ve Ferhengî), Tahran 1382.
• Yakut el-Hamevî, Mu’cemu’l-Büldân, (Thk. Ferîd Abdulaziz el-Cündi), (yay. Dâru’l Kütübi’l- İlmiyye), Beyrut, (Trz).
• Yarshater, Ehsan, “The Seleucid, Parthian and Sâsânîan Periods” The Cambridge History of Iran, V. 3, (Cambridge University Pres), 2000, pp. xvii-lxxv.
• Yarshater, Ehsan, “Iranian National History”, The Cambridge History of Iran (Edit-Ehsan Yarsha- ter), V. 3, (Cambridge University Pres), 2000, pp. 359–480.
• Yelda, Rami, A Persian Odyssey: Iran Revisited, (Publisher; A. Pankovich), New York 2005.
• Young, Gary K, Rome’s Eastern Trade, (Routledge Publishing), May, 2001.
• Zarinkoob, Abdulhusein, Ruzgaran: Tarih-i İran az Âghâz tâ Sukut-u Saltanat-ı Pahlavi, Sukhan, 1999.
• Zeimal, E. V, “The Political History Of Transoxiana” The Cambridge History of Iran (Edt-Ehsan Yarshater), V. 3, (Cambridge University Pres), 2000, pp. 232-262.
• Zekeri, Mohsen, Sassanid Soldiers in Early Muslim Society, (yay. Harrasowitz Verlag), Wiesbaden 1995.
• Zeydan, Corci, el-Arab Kable’l-İslâm, (yay. el Mektebet’ul-Ehliyye), Beyrut (Trz).