Köylüleri ve Güçlüleri (Dynatoi) ile Bizans Kırsalı: Kappadokia-Soğanlı Vadisi Örneği

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 87 Sayı: 309, 385 - 413, 08.08.2023

H. Ceylan Karaca

https://doi.org/10.37879/belleten.2023.385

Öz

Soğanlı Vadisi Niğde-Kayseri kentlerini bağlayan ana yolun üzerinde bulunmaktadır. Vadi içerisine kurulan yerleşimin verimli arazisi, kalabalık bir nüfusu barındırmış olması gereken kayaya oyma konutları ve köy kullanımına ait olduğu açık bir 10. yüzyıl yapı kompleksi, yerleşimin bir Bizans köyü olduğunu da gösterir. Vadinin, geç Antik dönem için nadir bir örnek olan kagir kilisesi de, erken Hristiyanlık döneminden beri buranın sahip olduğu ayrıcalıklı konumu örneklemekte, Orta Çağda da devam edecek önemini göstermektedir. Önemli rütbedeki askerlerin 11. yüzyılda vadideki varlığı yazıtlardan anlaşılmaktadır. Görünen o ki, Soğanlı orta Bizans döneminde önemli bir rotanın güvenliğini sağlayan askerî liderlerin yerleşimi olarak planlanmış, onların mülkü haline gelmiştir. Dolayısıyla, 11. yüzyılda doğu sınırına yakın önemli bir yola yerleştirilen askerlerin hem yolu kontrol etmeleri hem de ekonomik refahlarını buradan sağlamaları hedeflenmiş olmalıdır. Bu yaklaşım, Soğanlı Vadisi’nin bir Bizans kırsalı olarak iki önemli işlevini ortaya çıkarır: Vadi, Bizans İmparatorluğu’nun özellikle Orta Çağ Kappadokiası’nda oluşturmaya çalıştığı savunma stratejisinin önemli direnç noktalarından biridir; aynı zamanda, rütbeli askerlere (strategos, domestikos) ve köylülere ait yazıt ve portreler ile farklı işlevlere sahip yapılarıyla vadi orta Bizans dönemine ilişkin önemli arkeolojik, epigrafik ve sanatsal veriler barındırır. Soğanlı ve bir dönemki ‘güçlüleri’, Malazgirt Savaşı sonrasında Türklerin özellikle de Danişmendlilerin kontrolündeki yeni devlet sistemi içerisinde de varlığını sürdürmüştür. Bu çalışma, vadinin özellikle 10. yüzyıl içindeki ‘köy’ kimliğini, buraya yerleştirilen rütbeli askerlerin bölge ve İmparatorluk içindeki etkinlik ve sürekliliğini tartışmayı hedefler. Bu amaçla dö nemin askerî, tarihî ve toprak kanun metinleri ile yerleşimdeki mimari ve arkeolojik veriler kullanılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Kappadokia, Soğanlı Vadisi, Bizans köyü, dynatoslar, Skepidesailesi

Byzantine Countryside with its Villagers and Dynatoi: the Example of the Soğanlı Valley, Cappadocia

Öz

The Soğanlı Valley is on the main route that connects Niğde and Kayseri. Its arable land, rock-cut dwellings that housed a large population and an openly parochial complex from the tenth century indicate that the settlement contained a Byzantine village. Its masonry church, a rare element from late antiquity, exemplifies the special status of the settlement in early Christianity and foreshadows its ongoing importance in the Middle Ages. The eleventh-century inscriptions are the indicators of the middle and high-ranking soldiers in the settlement. Apparently, Soğanlı was one of the settlements chosen for the military leaders of the century and became a piece of land held by them. The powerful (dynatoi) who settled near this crucial route must have been meant not only to control that route but also to maintain their economic welfare from the territory. Thus, Soğanlı had a twofold prominence as a Byzantine countryside: It was a part of the defence strategy the empire attempted to formulate in medieval Cappadocia; furthermore, it housed important archaeological, epigraphical and art historical data on the medieval period of the region with its monuments of various functions and inscriptions. Soğanlı and its ‘dynatoi’ endured within the new administrative system after Manzikert. The study aims to examine the ‘village’ identity of the settlement especially in the tenth century, and to analyse the activity and continuity of the powerful in Soğanlı and the empire. Within this aim, the study uses the military, historical, legislative texts of the period, and architectural and archaeological data from the valley.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Cappadocia, the Soğanlı Valley, Byzantine village, the dynatoi, the familyof Skepides

Kaynakça

• Andriollo, Luisa and Métivier, Sophie, “Quel rôle pour les provinces dans la domination aristocratique au XIᵉ siècle?”, Travaux et Mémoires, 21/ 2, 2017, pp. 505-530.
• Ashburner, Walter, “The Farmer’s Law”, The Journal of Hellenic Studies 30, 1910, pp. 85-108.
• Ashkenazi, Jacob, “Holy Man versus Monk–Village and Monastery in the Late Antique Levant: Between Hagiography and Archaeology”, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 57, 2014, pp. 745-765.
• Beihammer, Alexander Daniel, Byzantium and the Emergence of Muslim-Turkish Anatolia, ca. 1040-1130, Routledge 2017.
• Biały, Kamil, “From Conquest to the Failed Usurpation: career of a typical Byzantine commander George Maniakes”, Proslogion, 2/14, 2016, pp. 173-187.
• Cahen, Claude, Osmanlılardan Önce Anadolu, trans. Erol Üyepazarcı, İstanbul 2000.
• Charalampakis, Pantelis, “On the Toponymy and Prosopography of Some Minor Military-Administrative Districts in Byzantium: Kas(s)e, Vindaion, Mauron Oros”, Karadeniz Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Dergisi, 3/3, 2017, pp. 27-49.
• Cheynet, Jean-Claude, Pouvoir et Contestations à Byzance (963-1210), Paris 1990.
• Cooper, J. Eric and Decker, Michael J., Life and Society in Byzantine Cappadocia, Great Britain 2012.
• Cotsonis, John, “Onomastics, gender, office and images on Byzantine lead seals: a means of investigating personal piety”, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 32/1, 2008, pp. 1-37.
• Çorağan, Nilay, “Kayseri’nin Yeşilhisar İlçesi, Erdemli Vadisi’ndeki Bizans dönemine ait sosyal içerikli yapılar”, in XV. Ortaçağ ve Türk Dönemi Kazıları ve Sanat Tarihi Araştırmaları Sempozyumu, 2 vols., Eskişehir 2012.
• D’Amato, Raffaele, “A Prôtospatharios, Magistros, and Strategos Autokrator of 11th cent.: the equipment of Georgios Maniakes and his army according to the Skylitzes Matritensis miniatures and other artistic sources of the middle Byzantine period”, Porphyra, 4, 2005, pp. 1-75.
• Estangüi-Gómez, Raúl - Kaplan, Michel, “La société rurale au XIᵉ siècle: une réévaluation”, Travaux et Mémoires, 21/2, 2017, pp. 531-560.
• Falkenhausen‚ Vera von, “A Provincial Aristocracy: the Byzantine Province in Southern Italy (9th–11th century)”, in The Byzantine Aristocracy IX to XIII Centuries‚ ed. Michael Angold, Great Britain 1984, pp. 211-236.
• Frankopan, Peter, “Land and Power in the Middle and Later Period”, in A Social History of Byzantium, ed. John Haldon, West Sussex 2009, pp. 112-143.
• Gerstel, Sharon E. J. and Talbot, Alice-Mary, “The culture of lay piety in medieval Byzantium 1054-1453”, in The Cambridge History of Christianity: Eastern Christianity (Vol. 5), ed. M. Angold, Cambridge 2008, pp. 79-100.
• Gerstel, Sharon E. J., Rural Lives and Landscapes in Late Byzantium: Art, Archaeology, and Ethnography, Cambridge 2015.
• Glykatzi-Ahrweiler, Hélène, “Recherches sur l’administration de l’empire byzantin aux IX-XIème siècles”, Bulletin de correspondance hellénique, 84/1, 1960, pp. 1-111.
• Grégoire, Henri, “Rapport sur un voyage d’exploration dans le Pont et en Cappadoce”, Bulletin de correspondence hellénique, 33, 1909, pp. 3-169.
• Guillou, André, “La Lucanie Byzantine: Étude de géographie historique”, Byzantion 35/1, 1965, pp. 119-149.
• Güneş, Cüneyt, Bizans Anadolusu’nda Askerî ve İdarî Bir Sistem: Thema Sistemi, TTK Yay., 2021.
• Haldon, John, “Information and War: Some Comments on Defensive Strategy and Information in the Middle Byzantine Period (ca. A.D. 660–1025)”, in War and Warfare in Late Antiquity: Current Perspectives, eds. Alexander Sarantis - Neil Christie, Leiden 2013, pp. 373-397.
• Hamilton, William J., Researches in Asia Minor, Pontus and Armenia; with some account of their antiquities and geology 1842, 2 vols. London 1842.
• Hennessy, Cecile, “The Byzantine Child: Picturing Complex Family Dynamics.”, in Approaches to the Byzantine Family, eds. Leslie Brubaker and Shaun Tougher, Farnham 2012, pp. 207-231.
• Hild, Friedrich, Das Byzantinische Strassensystem in Kappadokien, Wien 1977. Hild, Friedrich and Restle, Marcell, Tabula Imperii Byzantini 2, Kappadokien (Kappadokia, Charsianon, Sebasteia und Lykandos), Wien 1981.
• Holmes‚ Catherine, Basil II and the Governance of Empire (976–1025), Oxford 2005. Howard Johnston, James, “Authority and Control in the Interior of Asia Minor, Seventh-Ninth Centuries”, in Authority and Control in the Countryside: From Antiquity to Islam in the Mediterranean and Near East (Sixth-Tenth Century), eds. Alain Delattre et. al. Leiden 2019, pp. 128-175.
• Izdebski, Adam, “Rural Settlements”, in The Archaeology of Byzantine Anatolia, ed. Philipp Niewöhner, Oxford 2017, pp. 82-89.
• Jerphanion, Guillaume de, Une Nouvelle Province de L’art Byzantin Les Églises Rupestres de Cappadoce. 2 vols., Paris 1925‐1942.
• John Skylitzes, A Synopsis of Byzantine History 811–1057, 18.6, trans. John Wortley, Cambridge 2010.
• Jolivet-Lévy, Catherine, Les églises byzantines de Cappadoce, le programme iconographique de l’abside et de ses abords, Paris 1991.
• Jolivet-Lévy, Catherine, “Militaires et Donation en Cappadoce (Xᵉ-XIᵉ siècle)”, in Donation et donateurs dans le monde byzantin, ed. Jean-Marie Spieser and Élisabeth Yota, Paris 2012, pp. 141-163.
• Jolivet-Lévy, Catherine - Lemaigre Demesnil, Nicole, La Cappadoce, un siècle après Guillaume de Jerphanion. 2 vols., Paris 2015.
• Kaldellis, Anthony, Streams of Gold, Rivers of Blood: The Rise and Fall of Byzantium, 955 A.D. to the First Crusade, Oxford 2017.
• Kaplan, Michel, Les hommes et la terre à Byzance du VIᵉ au XIᵉ siècle, Paris 1992.
• Kaplan, Michel, “Les élites rurales byzantines: historiographie et sources”, Mélanges de l’École française de Rome–Moyen Âge, 124/ 2, 2012, pp. 299-312.
• Karakaya, Nilay, “Erdemli’de Ekmek ve Şarap”, Anadolu ve Çevresinde Ortaçağ, 2, 2008, pp. 33-53.
• Kazhdan, Alexander P., “Katepano”, The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, ed. Alexander P. Kazhdan et. al, New York-Oxford 1991, p. 1115 and p. 1267.
• Lafontaine-Dosogne, Jacqueline, “Nouvelles Notes Cappadociennes”, Byzantion, 33/1, 1963, pp. 121-183.
• Laiou, Angeliki E., “The Byzantine Village (5th-14th century)”, in Les Villages dans l’Empire byzantin, IVᵉ-XVᵉ siècle, eds. Jacque Lefort, et al., Paris 2005, pp. 31-54.
• Lamesa, Anaïs, “La chapelle des Donateurs à Soğanlı, nouvelle fondation de la famille des Skepides”, Anatolia Antiqua, 23, 2015, pp. 179-198.
• Lefort, Jacques, “Rural Economy and Social Relations in the Countryside”, Dumbarton Oaks Papers, 47, 1993, pp. 101-113.
• Lefort, Jacques and Martin, Jean-Marie, “Le Sigillion du Catépan d’Italie Eustathe Palatinos pour le Juge Byzantios (Décembre 1045)”, Mélanges de l’école française de Rome, 98/2, 1986, pp. 525-542.
• Leidholm, Nathan, Elite Byzantine Kinship, ca. 950-1204: Blood, Reputation, and the Genos, Leeds 2019.
• Mathews, Thomas F., Daskalakis Mathews, Annie Christine, “Islamic-Style Mansions in Byzantine Cappadocia and the Development of the Inverted T-Plan”, Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians, 56/3, 1997, pp. 294-315.
• McGeer‚ Eric, The Land Legislation of the Macedonian Emperors, Toronto 2000.
• McGeer, Eric and Nesbitt, John W., Byzantium in the Times of Troubles: the Continuation of the Chronicle of John Skylitzes (1057-1079), Leiden 2020.
• Métivier, Sophie and Destephen, Sylvain, “Évêques et chorévêques en Asie Mineure aux IVe et Ve siècles”, Topoi, 15, 2007, pp. 324-378.
• Mıynat, Ali, Cultural and Socio-Economic Relations Between the Turkmen States and the Byzantine Empire and West with a Corpus of the Turkmen Coins in the Barber İnstitute Coin Collection, University of Birmingham, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Birmingham 2017.
• Michael Attaleiates, The History, trans. Anthony Kaldellis and Dimitris Krallis, Cambridge, MA, 2012.
• Mikhael Attaleiates, Tarih, trans. Bilge Umar, İstanbul 2008.
• Mikhail Psellos’un Khronographia’sı, trans. Prof. Dr. Işın Demirkent, Ankara 1992.
• Mitchell, Stephen, Anatolia: Land, Men, and Gods in Asia Minor, 2 vols., Oxford 1993.
• Morris, Rosemary. “The Powerful and the Poor in Tenth-Century Byzantium: Law and Reality”, Past&Present 73, 1976, pp. 3-27.
• Ousterhout, Robert, “Remembering the dead in Byzantine Cappadocia: the Architectural Settings for Commemoration”, in Architecture of Byzantium and Kievan Rus from the 9th to the 12th Centuries (Materials of the International seminar, November 17-21, 2009), pp. 87-98.
• Ousterhout, Robert G., Visualizing Community: Art, Material Culture and Settlement in Byzantine Cappadocia. Washington D.C. 2017.
• Öztürk, Fatma Gül, “Negotiating between the Independent and Groups of Courtyard Complexes in Cappadocia”, in Proceedings of the Society of Architectural Historians, Australia and New Zealand: Open 30, 2 vols., eds. Alexandra Brown - Andrew Leach, Queensland 2013.
• Peker, Nilüfer and Uyar, Tolga B., “Güzelöz-Başköy ve Çevresi Bizans Dönemi Yerleşimleri 2012”, in 31. Araştırma Sonuçları Toplantısı (Muğla 27‐31 Mayıs 2013), Muğla 2014, pp. 110-119.
• Peker, Nilüfer, “Agricultural production and installations in Byzantine Cappadocia: a case study focusing on Mavrucandere”, Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies, 44, 2020, pp. 40-61.
• Peters-Custot, Annick, “Les communautés grecques de Basilicate à l’époque byzantine”, in Histoire et Culture dans l’Italie Byzantine: acquis et nouvelles recherches, eds. André Jacob, et. al., Rome 2006, pp. 559-587.
• Prigent, Vivien, “Byzantine Administration and the Army”, in A Companion to Byzantine Italy, ed. Salvatore Cosentino, Leiden 2021, pp. 140-169.
• Restle, Marcell, Studien zur Frühbyzantinischen Architektur Kappadokiens. 2 vols., Wien 1979.
• Restle, Marcell, Byzantine Wall Painting in Asia Minor. 3 vols., trans. Irene R. Gibbons, Shannon Ireland 1969.
• Restle, Marcell, “Zum Datum der Karabaş Kilise im Soğanlı Dere”, Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik,19, 1970, pp. 261-266.
• Rodley‚ Lyn, Cave Monasteries of Byzantine Cappadocia, Cambridge 1985.
• Rott, Hans, Kleinasiatische Denkmäler aus Pisidien, Pamphylien, Kappadokien und Lykien, Leipzig 1908.
• Sarris, Peter, “Large Estates and the Peasantry in Byzantium c. 600-1100”, Revue belge de philologie et d’histoire, 90/2, 2012, pp. 429-450.
• Teteriatnikov, Natalia, “A Group of Early Churches in Cappadocia: Evidence for Dating”, Byzantina Chronika, 55, 1998, pp. 232-237.
• Texier, Charles, Description de L’Asie Mineure faite per ordre du Gouvernement français de 1833 à 1837, 2 vols., Paris 1849.
• Theotokis, Georgios, “Rus, Varangian and Frankish Mercenaries in the Service of the Byzantine Emperors (9th-11th c.): numbers, organisation and battle tactics in the operational theatres of Asia Minor and the Balkans”, Byzantina Symmeikta, 22 (2012), pp. 125-156.
• Thierry, Nicole, Haut Moyen-Âge en Cappadoce: Les églises de la région de Çavuşin, 2 vols., Paris 1994.
• Thierry, Nicole, “L’église de Saint Constantine et des Quarante Martyrs du Basilikos Kandidatos‚ Basile Tigori‚ à Erdemli‚ Cappadoce”, Deltion, 27, 2006, pp. 137-146.
• Three Byzantine Military Treatises, ed. George T. Dennis, Washington D.C. 1985.
• Turchetto, Jacobo, “‘…e fino a Mazaka… passando per Soandos e Sadakora…’ (STRABO, XIV, 2, 29). La koinè odós straboniana e la possible viabilità della Cappadocia centrale”, Journal of Ancient Topography, 22, 2012, pp. 83-94.
• Uyar, Tolga B., Art et Société en Pays de Rum: Les peintures ‘byzantines’ du XIIIe siècle en Cappadoce, 2 vols., (University of Paris I, unpublished Ph.D. thesis, Paris 2011).
• Warland, Rainer, Byzantinisches Kappadokien, Philipp von Zabern 2013.
• Weißbrod, Ursula, “Hier liegt der Knecht Gottes…” Gräber in byzantinischen Kirchen und ihr Dekor (11. bis 15. Jahrhundert), Wiesbaden 2003.
• Wickham, Chris, Framing the Early Middle Ages: Europe and the Mediterranean, 400-800, Oxford 2005.