EVALUATION OF PROHIBITION AGAINST USE OF FORCE AND VALIDITY OF ITS EXCEPTIONS IN CYBERSPACE WITHIN THE SCOPE OF TALLINN MANUAL

Öz

In this study, whether states can establish sovereignty in cyberspace and the applicability of international law rules for the use of force in cyberspace is discussed. The approaches to determining the scope of the use of force in cyberspace and the existing international law on this subject are analyzed. The responsibility arising from the cyber actions of non-state actors is analyzed and the applicability of the right of self-defense, which is an exception to the prohibition of use of force is discussed. As a result, it is seen that the rules of international law are applicable to the use of force in cyberspace and the exceptions to the prohibition of resorting to force are still valid in cyberspace, and it has been concluded that these rules should be applied restrictively because of the gray areas with the definition of armed attack, the scope of self-defense and the party to whom the self-defense will be directed in cyberspace. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Cyber-attack
• use of force
• right of self-defense
• Tallinn Manual

Siber Uzayda Kuvvet Kullanma Yasağı ve Yasağın İstisnalarının Geçerliliğinin Tallinn Rehberi Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi

Öz

Bu çalışmada, devletlerin siber uzayda egemenlik tesis edip edemeyeceği ve siber uzayda kuvvet kullanımına yönelik uluslararası hukuk kurallarının uygulanabilirliği ele alınmıştır. Siber uzayda kuvvet kullanmanın kapsamının belirlenmesine yönelik yaklaşımlar ve bu konuda var olan uluslararası hukuk kuralları üzerinde durulmuştur. Devlet dışı aktörlerin siber eylemlerinden doğan sorumluluk incelenmiş ve kuvvet kullanma yasağının istisnası olan meşru müdafaa hakkının uygulanabilirliği tartışılmıştır. Çalışmanın sonucunda, uluslararası hukuk kurallarının siber uzayda kuvvet kullanımına uygulandığı ve kuvvete başvurma yasağının istisnaları siber uzayda da geçerliliğini koruduğu görülmüş, siber uzayda silahlı saldırının tanımı, meşru müdafaanın kapsamı ve yönlendirileceği taraf açısından gri alanlar nedeniyle bu kuralların sınırlı şekilde uygulanması gerektiği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Siber saldırı
• kuvvet kullanma
• meşru müdafaa hakkı
• Tallinn Rehberi

Kaynakça

1. BBC (2015), “Sony cyber-attack: North Korea faces new US sanctions”, https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-30661973 (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
2. BM, Birleşmiş Milletler Anlaşması, 24 Ekim 1945, 1 UNTS XVI, https://inhak.adalet.gov.tr/Resimler/SayfaDokuman/2212020141836bm_01.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.05.2021) (BM Anlaşması).
3. BM Genel Kurulu, 3314 (XXIX) sayılı karar, 1974, (Definition of Aggression), http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/GAres3314.html (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021). Boer, Lianne J. M. (2013), “Restating the Law as It Is: On the Tallinn Manual and the Use of Force in Cyberspace” Amsterdam Law Forum, 5: 4–18.
4. Bossert, Thomas P. (2017), “It’s Official: North Korea Is Behind WannaCry”, https://www.wsj.com/articles/its-official-north-korea-is-behind-wannacry-1513642537 (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
5. Brotman, Stuart N. (2015), “Multistakeholder Internet governance: A pathway completed, the road ahead”, Center for Technology Innovation at Brookings, https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/multistakeholder-1.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.05.2021).
6. Christakis, Théodore (2021), “The Hague Academy of International Law Online Summer Courses: The International Law of Cybersecurity”, https://www.hagueacademy.nl/wp-content/uploads/2021-ONLINE-PROGRAMME-1.pdf (Son Erişim: 23.07.2021).
7. Communications Security Establishment (2018), “CSE Statement on the NotPetya Malware”, https://cse-cst.gc.ca/en/information-and-resources/news/cse-statement-notpetya-malware (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
8. Corera, Gordon (2021), “Iran nuclear attack: Mystery surrounds nuclear sabotage at Natanz”, BBC News, 12.04.2021, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-56722181 (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021).

9. Delibasis, Dimitrios (2006), “State Use of Force in Cyberspace for Self-Defence: A New Challenge for a New Century”, Peace Conflict and Development: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 8: 1–50.
10. Euronews (2021), “Belgium's parliament and universities hit by cyber attack”, 5.05.2021, https://www.euronews.com/2021/05/05/belgium-s-parliament-and-universities-hit-by-cyber-attack (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021).
11. European Commission (2017), “EU cybersecurity initiatives: working towards more secure environment”, https://ec.europa.eu/information_society/newsroom/image/document/2017-3/factsheet_cybersecurity_update_january_2017_41543.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
12. Fildes, Jonathan (2010), “Stuxnet worm ‘targeted high-value Iranian assets’”, BBC News, 23.09.2010, https://www.bbc.com/news/technology-11388018 (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021).
13. Foltz, Andrew C. (2012), “Stuxnet, ‘Schmitt Analysis,’ and the Cyber ‘Use of Force’ Debate”, Air War College Air University, Vol. 67.
14. Foreign & Commonwealth Office, National Cyber Security Centre, and Lord Ahmad of Wimbledon (2018), “Foreign Office Minister condemns Russia for NotPetya attacks” https://www.gov.uk/government/news/foreign-office-minister-condemns-russia-for-notpetya-attacks (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
15. Franzese, Patrick W. (2009), “Sovereignty in Cyberspace: Can It Exist?”, Air Force Law Review, 64. Güreşçi, Ramazan (2019), “Siber Saldırıların Uluslararası Hukuktaki Güç Kullanımı Kapsamında Değerlendirmesi”, Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi, 18: 75–98.
16. Goodrich, Hambro ve Simons (1969), Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents (New York, Columbia University Press).
17. Güreşçi, Ramazan (2019), “Siber Saldırıların Uluslararası Hukuktaki Güç Kullanımı Kapsamında Değerlendirmesi”, Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi, 18: 75–98.
18. Hoisungton, Matthew (2009), “Cyberwarfare and the Use of Force Giving Rise to the Right of Self-Defense”, Boston College International and Comparative Law Review, 32: 439–455.
19. International Court of Justice (ICJ), Legality of the Threat or Use of Nuclear Weapons, Advisory Opinion of 8 July 1996 (Nükleer Silahlar).
20. International Court of Justice (ICJ), Nicaragua v. United States of America, Military and Paramilitary Activities, Judgement of 27 June 1986 (Nikaragua).
21. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia (ICTY), Prosecutor v. Dusko Tadic (Appeal Judgement), IT-94-1-A, ,15 July 1999 (Tadic).
22. International Law Commission, Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts, 2001, https://legal.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft_articles/9_6_2001.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.05.2021).
23. Ivan, Paul (2019), “Responding to Cyberattacks: Prospects for the EU Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox”, https://www.epc.eu/content/PDF/2019/pub_9081_responding_cyberattacks.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
24. Jensen, Eric Talbot (2002), “Computer Attacks on Critical National Infrastructure: A Use of Force Invoking the Right of Self Defense” Stanford Journal of International Law, 38: 207-240.
25. Koh, Harold Hongju (2012), “International Law in Cyberspace”, Harvard International Law Journal, 5: 1–12. Lewis, James A. (2010), “A Note on the Laws of War in Cyberspace”, Center for Strategic International Studies.
26. Lotrointe, Catherine (2012), “State Sovereignity and Self-Defense in Cyberspace: A Normative Framework for Balancing Legal Rights” Emory International Law Review, 26: 825–919.
27. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of China (2017), “International Strategy on Cooperation in Cyberspace (Siber Uzayda İşbirliği Hakkında Uluslararası Strateji)”, https://www.fmprc.gov.cn/mfa_eng/wjb_663304/zzjg_663340/jks_665232/kjlc_665236/qtwt_665250/t1442390.shtml (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021).
28. Moret, Erica ve Pawlak, Patryk (2017), “The EU Cyber Diplomacy Toolbox: towards a cyber sanctions regime?”, https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief%2024%20Cyber%20sanctions.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.09.2021).
29. Mueller, Milton (2018), “Sovereignty and Cyberspace: Institutions and Internet Governance” Essay from the Lecture at University of Indiana October 3rd 2018: 1–8.
30. Paris Call (2018), “The Call and the 9 Principles”, https://pariscall.international/en/principles (Son Erişim 13 Eylül 2021). Quach, Katyana (2021), “Belgian parliament halts China Uyghur 'genocide' debate after DDoS smashes ISP offline”, The Register, 5.05.2021, https://www.theregister.com/2021/05/05/belnet_belgium_ddos/ (Son Erişim: 7.05.2021).
31. Schmitt, Michael N. (2012), “International Law in Cyberspace: The Koh Speech and Tallinn Manual Juxtaposed”, Harvard International Law Journal, 54: 13–37.
32. Siber Savaşlara Uygulanacak Uluslararası Hukuk Hakkında Tallinn Rehberi (Tallinn Manual on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare) (2013), Cambridge University Press (Tallinn Rehberi).
33. Siber Savaşlara Uygulanacak Uluslararası Hukuk Hakkında Tallinn Rehberi 2.0 (Tallinn Manual 2.0 on the International Law Applicable to Cyber Warfare) (2017), Cambridge University Press (Tallinn Rehberi 2.0).
34. Sur, Melda (2020), Uluslararası Hukukun Esasları (İstanbul: Beta).
35. White House (2011), “International Strategy for Cyberspace”, https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/rss_viewer/international_strategy_for_cyberspace.pdf (Son Erişim: 8.05.2021).
36. Yayla, Mehmet (2013), “Uluslararası Hukukta Siber Saldırılara Karşı Kuvvet Kullanma”, Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi, 107: 199–220.