21. YÜZYILDA ORTADOĞU’DA İKİ KIRILGAN DEVLETİN -IRAK VE SURİYE- EVRENSEL GÜVENLİK ÜZERİNDE ETKİLERİ

Öz

Ortadoğu coğrafyası, eski uygarlıkların doğduğu yer olarak bilinmektedir. İkinci Dünya Savaşı’ndan sonra yeni dünya düzeninin oluşmasıyla birlikte, Ortadoğu, süper güçlerin yarışma alanı olmuştur. Bu yarışmadan kaynaklanan olumsuz olayların hepsi bugüne kadar devam eden müzmin ‘kırılgan devlet’ (fragile state) veya ‘başarısız devlet’ (failed state) olma hastalığını bu bölgede yaymıştır. Bu bağlamda, bu çalışmada ilk olarak literatürde Ortadoğu ve kırılgan devlet kavramlarının anlamları ele alınarak uluslararası güvenliğin güncel sorunları tartışılacaktır. Özellikle terörizm ve kitle imha silahlarının yayılması meselelerin içeriği açıklanacaktır. Son olarak, Irak ve Suriye bağlamında terörizm ve diğer konuların uluslararası güvenliği nasıl tehdit ettiği araştırılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Irak
• Suriye
• Kırılgan Devlet
• Başarısız Devlet
• Terörizm

THE MIDDLE EAST’S TWO FRAGILE STATES, IRAQ AND SYRIA, AND THEIR IMPACT ON GLOBAL SECURITY IN THE 21ST CENTURY

Öz

The Middle East is known as the birthplace of ancient civilizations. With the emergence of a new world order after World War II, the Middle East became a battleground for superpowers. All the negative events stemming from this competition have spread the chronic disease of ‘fragile state’ or ‘failed state’ in the region, which persists to this day. In this context, this study will first examine the meanings of the concepts of the Middle East and fragile state in the literature and discuss current issues of international security. Specifically, the issues of terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction will be explored. Finally, it will explore how terrorism and other issues threaten international security in the context of Iraq and Syria.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Iraq
• Syria
• Fragile State
• Failed State
• Terrorism

Kaynakça

1. • 21. Yüzyıl Türkiye Enstitüsü (2012), “Suriye Siyasi Tarihi”, 29.05.2012, Erişim Tarihi: 26.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://21yyte.org/suriye/suriye-siyasi-tarihi/6619.
2. • AlJazeera (2022), “Iraqi parliament elects Abdul Latif Rashid as new president”, 13.10.2022, Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/10/13/iraqi-parliament-elects-new-president-abdul-latif-rashid.
3. • Al-Qarawee, Harith Hasan (2014), “Iraq’s Sectarian Crisis: A Legacy of Exclusion”, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Nisan 2014, Erişim Tarihi: 20.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2014/04/iraqs-sectarian-crisis-a-legacy-of-exclusion?lang=en.
4. • Ali, Zainab & Tokame, Wisdom & Haken, Nate (2024), Fragile States Index Annual Report 2024, Washington: The Fund For Peace, Erişim Tarihi: 20.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://fragilestatesindex.org/wp-content/uploads/2025/02/FSI-2024-Report-A-World-Adrift-2.pdf.
5. • Alshamary, Marsin & Huggard, Kevin (2023), “How Iraq is Managing the Israel-Gaza Crisis”, Brookings Institution, 21.12.2023, Erişim Tarihi: 11.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.brookings.edu/articles/how-iraq-is-managing-the-israel-gaza-crisis/.
6. • Armaoğlu, Fahir (2018), 20. Yüzyıl Siyasi Tarihi (1914-1995), İstanbul: Kronik Kitap.
7. • Beaumont, Peter & Blake, G. H. & Wagstaff, J. Malcolm (1988), The Middle East: A Geographical Study (Second Edition), New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
8. • Bey, Ali Yekta (2024), “Irak Krallığı: 40 yıl sürmeyen bir rüya”, 13.11.2024, gzt, Erişim Tarihi: 23.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.gzt.com/mecra/irak-kralligi-40-yil-surmeyen-bir-ruya-3790905.

9. • Britannica, “Middle East”, Erişim Tarihi: 29.03.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.britannica.com/place/Middle-East.
10. • Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs (2007), “Background Note: Syria”, U.S. Department of State Archive, Erişim Tarihi: 28.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm.
11. • Burke, Anthony & Lee-Koo, Katrina & McDonald, Matt (2016), “An Ethics of Global Security”, Journal of Global Security Studies, Cilt 1, Sayı: 1, ss. 64-79.
12. • Canlı, Enes (2021), “Arap Baharı’nın ilk devriminin üzerinden 10 yıl geçti”, Anadolu Ajansı, 14.01.2021, Erişim Tarihi: 25.03.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/dunya/arap-baharinin-ilk-devriminin-uzerinden-10-yil-gecti/2109556.
13. • Center For Preventive Action (2024/a), “Conflict in Syria”, CFR Global Conflict Tracker, 14.05.2025, Erişim Tarihi: 20.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/conflict-syria.
14. • Center for Preventive Action (2024/b), “Instability in Iraq”, CFR Global Conflict Tracker, 13.02.2024, Erişim Tarihi: 20.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.cfr.org/global-conflict-tracker/conflict/political-instability-iraq.
15. • Cleveland, William L. & Bunton, Martin (2025), A History of the Modern Middle East, Seventh Edition, New York: Routledge.
16. • Cloud, David S. & Adnan, Ghassan (2022), “Iraqi Parliament Elects Iran-Aligned Mohammed al-Sudani as Prime Minister”, The Wall Street Journal, 27.10.2022, Erişim Tarihi: 08.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.wsj.com/articles/iraqi-parliament-elects-iran-aligned-mohammed-al-sudani-as-prime-minister-11666897764.
17. • Council on Foreign Relations (2023), “The Sunni-Shia Divide”, 27.04.2023, Erişim Tarihi: 21.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.cfr.org/article/sunni-shia-divide.
18. • Doğan, İlyas (2016), Devletler Hukuku, Ankara: Astana Yayınları.
19. • Gelvin, James L. (2011), The Modern Middle East: A History, Third Edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
20. • Hamasaeed, Sarhang & Nada, Garrett (2020), “Iraq Timeline: Since the 2003 War”, United States Institute of Peace, 29.05.2020, Erişim Tarihi: 23.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.usip.org/iraq-timeline-2003-war.
21. • Hinnebusch, Raymond (2019), “The Arab uprising and regional power struggle”, içinde (editör: Shahram Akbarzadeh) Routledge Handbook Of İnternational Relations in the Middle East, New York: Routledge, ss. 110-124.
22. • History.com (2010), “September 11 Attacks”, 17.02.2010, Erişim Tarihi: 21.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.history.com/topics/21st-century/9-11-attacks.
23. • Human Rights Watch (2019), World Report 2019 - Events of 2018, Erişim Tarihi: 15.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/world_report_download/hrw_world_report_2019.pdf.
24. • IISS (2024), “Iraq’s response to the conflict in Gaza”, Mart 2024, Cilt 30, Yorum: 06, Erişim Tarihi: 24.03.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.iiss.org/publications/strategic-comments/2024/03/iraqs-response-to-the-conflict-in-gaza/.
25. • Iqbal, Zaryab & Starr, Harvey (2015), State Failure In the Modern World, Stanford: Stanford University Press.
26. • Kaufman, Joyce P. (2022), Introduction to International Relations: Theory and Practice, Third Edition, Londra: Rowman & Littlefield.
27. • Kéchichian, Joseph A. (2013), “Saddam Hussein’s legacy of sectarian division in Iraq”, The GroundTruth Project, 20.03.2013, Erişim Tarihi: 24.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://thegroundtruthproject.org/saddam-husseins-legacy-of-sectarian-division-in-iraq/.
28. • Khoury, Philip Shukry (1987), Syria and The French Mandate: The Politics of Arab Nationalism (1920-1945), Princeton: Princeton University Press.
29. • Kurşun, Zekeriya, “PANARABİZM”, TDV İslâm Ansiklopedisi, Erişim Tarihi: 18.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/panarabizm. • Linton, D. H. & Moseley, F. (2007), “The Geological Ages”, içinde (editörler: I. E. S. Edwards & C. J. Gadd & N. G. L. Hammond) The Cambridge Ancient History, Volume I, Part I: Prolegomena and Prehistory, Third Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ss. 1-34.
30. • Loft, Philip & Kirk-Wade, Esme (2024), “The Syrian civil war: timeline, UK aid and statistics”, Londra: House of Commons Library, 19.12.2024, Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/CBP-9381/CBP-9381.pdf.
31. • Lynch, Marc (2013), The Arab Uprising: The Unfinished Revolutions of the New Middle East, New York: PublicAffairs.
32. • Mabon, Simon (2020), Houses Built on Sand: Violence, sectarianism and revolution in the Middle East, Manchester: Manchester University Press.
33. • McMillan, M. E. (2016), From The First World War To The Arab Spring: What's Really Going On In The Middle East?, New York: Palgrave Mcmillan.
34. • Owen, Roger (2004), State, Power and Politics in the Making of the Modern Middle East, Third Edition, New York: Routledge.
35. • Öktem, Emre A. (2011), Terörizm İnsancıl Hukuk ve İnsan Hakları, İstanbul: Derin Yayınları.
36. • Patrick, Stewart (2011), Weak Links Fragile States, Global Threats and International Security, Oxford: Oxford University Press.
37. • Phillips, Christopher (2020), The Battle for Syria: International Rivalry in The New Middle East, (Revised and Updated Edition), New Haven and Londra: Yale University Press.
38. • Pustorino, Pietro (2010), “Failed States and International Law: The Impact of UN Practice on Somalia in Respect of Fundamental Rules of International Law”, German Yearbook of International Law, 53, ss. 727-752.
39. • Samuels, David J. (2021), Comparative Politics, Updated Edition, Second Edition, Hoboken, NJ, USA: Pearson Education.
40. • Saul, Ben (2021), “Migration, Displacement, Security, and International Law”, içinde (editörler: Robin Geiß & Nils Melzer) The Oxford Handbook of the International Law of Global Security, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ss. 413-431.
41. • Shaw, Malcolm N. (2003), International Law, Fifth Edition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
42. • Shoup, John A. (2018), The History of Syria, Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood.
43. • Suleiman, Ali Haj (2025), “Syria in 2024: A year that changed everything in a war-torn nation”, AlJazeera, 02.01.2025, Erişim Tarihi: 09.02.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.aljazeera.com/gallery/2025/1/2/2024-a-year-that-turned-the-tables-in-war-torn-syria.
44. • The Fund for Peace - Fragile States Index, “What Does State Fragility Mean?”, Erişim Tarihi: 25.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://fragilestatesindex.org/frequently-asked-questions/what-does-state-fragility-mean/.
45. • Thürer, Daniel (1999), “The “failed state” and international law”, International Review of Red Cross, Cilt 81, Sayı: 836, Aralık 1999, ss. 731-762.
46. • Türkiye Cumhuriyeti Dışişleri Bakanlığı (2017), “Astana’da Düzenlenen Suriye Konulu Uluslararası Toplantı Hakkında Türkiye, Rusya ve İran Tarafından Yapılan Ortak Açıklama, 21-22 Aralık 2017”, Erişim Tarihi: 22.05.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://www.mfa.gov.tr/astanada-duzenlenen-suriye-konulu-uluslararasi-toplanti-hk-ortak-aciklama.tr.mfa.
47. • Utucu, Sait Burak & AP (2024), “Suriye'de Baas Partisi’nin eski üyeleri anlatıyor: ‘Baasçı değilseniz herhangi bir işe giremezdiniz’”, Euronews, 30.12.2024, Erişim Tarihi: 23.04.2025, Erişim Adresi: https://tr.euronews.com/2024/12/30/suriyede-baas-partisinin-eski-uyeleri-anlatiyor-baasci-degilseniz-herhangi-bir-ise-giremez.