Understanding the New Russian Energy Policy after the Crimean Crisis: A Case Study on TurkStream, Power of Siberia, and Nord Stream 2 Natural Gas Projects

Yıl 2021, Cilt: 2 Sayı: 1, 206 - 255, 15.03.2021

Mesut Hakkı Caşın Sina Kısacık

Öz

Between 1991 and 2000, Russia has experienced the negative consequences of the disintegration of the Soviet Union internally and externally. However, thanks to the centralist policies pursued by Vladimir Putin, accompanied by a positive international atmosphere and increasing energy prices, Russia has again become a noteworthy global power since the 2000s. Moscow has been exporting natural gas and oil to European markets mostly via Ukraine. However, Russia has used gas disruptions to punish Ukraine’s rapprochement with the Euro-Atlantic bloc since the Orange Revolution (2004). The Kremlin seeks to control Ukraine because of its global significance to Russia — geostrategically, geopolitically, geoeconomically, and geoculturally. The rejection of the EU Association Agreement in November 2013 by the then-Ukraine President Viktor Yanukovych resulted in the Maidan Events, the downfall of Yanukovych, pro-Europeans coming into power in Ukraine, and the annexation of Crimea by Russia. After that, the Euro-Atlantic bloc began to heavily sanction Moscow. Despite those sanctions, Russia has not altered its Ukraine policy. Russia has attached great importance to completing the TurkStream, Power of Siberia, and Nord Stream 2 projects. This paper will elaborate on the main parameters of Russia’s new foreign energy policy after the Crimean crisis by focusing on these three natural gas pipeline projects.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Russia, Crimea, TurkStream, Power of Siberia, Nord Stream 2

Kaynakça

• ● Akin, Melissa (2013), “Russia, China find compromise on gas deal after 15 year standoff”, Reuters, 25.03.2013, Date of Accession: 21.10.2016 from http://www.reuters.com/article/russia-china-gas-idUSL5N0CH1IH20130325.
• ● Aktürk, Şener (2014), “Toward A Turkish-Russian Axis? Conflicts in Georgia, Syria, and Ukraine, and Cooperation over Nuclear Energy”, Insight Turkey, Vol.16, No: 4, pp. 13-22.
• ● Andrianova, Anna & Khrennikova, Dina (2016), “How Cheap Oil Is Squeezing Russia’s Economy – It’s expanding the deficit and spurring inflation”, Bloomberg, 26.01.2016, Date of Accession: 09.08.2016 from http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-01-26/how-cheap-oil-is-squeezing-russia-s-economy.
• ● Arpacı, Sadık (2021), “Navalny Cephesi: 23 Ocak-2 Şubat Döneminde Rusya’da Yaşananlar”, Uluslararası Politika Akademisi, 03.02.2021, Date of Accession: 10.02.2021 from http://politikaakademisi.org/2021/02/03/navalny-cephesi-23-ocak-2-subat-doneminde-rusyada-yasananlar/.
• ● Aris, Ben (2021), “Russia’s Lavrov threatens to break off diplomatic relations with EU if sanctioned”, BNE IntelliNews, 12.02.2021, Date of Accession: 12.02.2021 from https://www.intellinews.com/russia-s-lavrov-threatens-to-break-off-diplomatic-relations-with-eu-if-sanctioned-202809/.
• ● Başlamış, Cenk & Deprem, Okay (2018), Vladimir Vladimiroviç Putin: Rusya’yı Ayağa Kaldıran Lider, İstanbul: Doğan Kitap.
• ● Bierman, Stephen & Mazneva, Elena (2016), “Rosneft May Top Gazprom as Kremlin's Crown Jewel of Energy”, Bloomberg, 14.03.2016, Date of Accession: 30.01.2021 from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-03-14/rosneft-may-top-gazprom-as-kremlin-s-crown-jewel-of-energy.
• ● Byalkova, Nina (2014), “Brussels opens infringement procedure against Bulgaria over South Stream – media”, See News, 03.06.2014, Date of Accession: 22.09.2016 from https://seenews.com/news/brussels-opens-infringement-procedure-against-bulgaria-over-south-stream-media-423705.
• ● Caşın, Mesut Hakkı (2015), Novgorod Knezliği’nden XXI. Yüzyıla Rus İmparatorluk Stratejisi, Ankara: Atlas Kitap.
• ● Caşın, Mesut Hakkı & Derman, Giray Saynur (2016), Rus Dış Politikasındaki Değişim ve Kremlin Penceresinden Yeni Ufuklar, Ankara: SRT Yayınları.
• ● Caşın, Mesut Hakkı & Kısacık, Sina (2018), Avrupa Birliği Enerji Hukuku ve Güvenlik Algılamaları, İstanbul: Çağlayan Kitap & Yayıncılık & Eğitim.
• ● Cafersoy, Nazim (2014), “Rusya’nın Deniz Stratejisi ve Karadeniz”, in Hazar’dan Karadeniz’e Stratejik Bakış (ed. by Okan Yeşilot), İstanbul: Yeditepe Yayınevi, pp. 139-149.
• ● “Council Regulation (EU) No 692/2014 of 23 June 2014 concerning restrictive measures in response to the illegal annexation of Crimea and Sevastopol”, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:02014R0692-20141220&qid=1444987014323&from=EN.
• ● Domańska, Maria & Kardaś, Szymon (2016), “The consequences of the Western financial sanctions on the Russian economy”, Centre for Eastern Studies, 23.03.2016, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from http://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_203.pdf.
• ● Dezem, Vanessa & Flatley, Daniel & Khrennikova, Dina (2020), “Russia Accelerates Nord Stream 2 Project to Beat U.S. Sanctions”, World Oil, 30.12.2020, Date of Accession: 30.01.2021 from https://www.worldoil.com/news/2020/12/30/russia-accelerates-nord-stream-2-project-to-beat-us-sanctions.
• ● “Economic impact on the EU of sanctions over Ukraine conflict”, European Parliament Briefing, October 2015, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/BRIE/2015/569020/EPRS_BRI (2015)569020_EN.pdf.
• ● Elliott, Stuart (2020), “Russian gas flows to Europe remain at 2020 highs in November”, S&P Global Platts, 03.12.2020, Date of Accession: 29.01.2021 from https://www.spglobal.com/platts/en/market-insights/latest-news/natural-gas/120320-russian-gas-flows-to-europe-remain-at-2020-highs-in-november.
• ● Euractiv (2013), “South Stream bilateral deals breach EU law, Commission says”, 04.12.2013, Date of Accession: 22.09.2016 from https://www.euractiv.com/section/competition/news/south-stream-bilateral-deals-breach-eu-law-commission-says/.
• ● European Commission (2010), “Commission Staff Working Paper Interpretative Note on Directive 2009/72/EC Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Electricity and Directive 2009/73/EC Concerning Common Rules for the Internal Market in Natural Gas- The Regulatory Authorities”, Brussels, 22.01.2010, Date of Accession: 22.09.2016 from https://ec.europa.eu/energy/sites/ener/files/documents/2010_01_21_the_regulatory_authorities.pdf.
• ● European Commission (2015), “Commission Notice of 25.9.2015 Commission Guidance note on the implementation of certain provisions of Regulation (EU) No 833/2014”, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from https://europa.eu/newsroom/sites//newsroom/files/docs/body/1_act_part1_v2_en.pdf.
• ● European Commission Energy, “Market Legislation”, Last Update: 22.09.2016, Date of Accession: 23.09.2016 from https://ec.europa.eu/energy/en/topics/markets-and-consumers/market-legislation.
• ● European Parliament (2021), “2019-2024 Plenary sitting Joint Motion For A Resolution pursuant to Rule 132(2) and (4) of the Rules of Procedure replacing the following motions: B9-0090/2021 (S&D) B9-0092/2021 (ECR) B9-0093/2021 (Verts/ALE) B9-0094/2021 (Renew) B9-0095/2021 (PPE) on the arrest of Aleksei Navalny (2021/2513(RSP))”, 20.01.2021, Date of Accession: 10.02.2021 from https://www.europarl.europa.eu/doceo/document/RC-9-2021-0090_EN.pdf.
• ● Gas to Power Journal (2020), “Gazprom starts pre-investment phase of ‘Power of Siberia 2’”, 30.03.2020, Date of Accession: 10.02.2021 from https://www.gastopowerjournal.com/projectsafinance/item/10710-gazprom-starts-pre-investment-phase-of-power-of-siberia-2.
• ● “Gas markets: Commission reinforces market conditions in revised exemption decision on OPAL pipeline”, 28.10.2016, Date of Accession: 28.02.2017 from http://europa.eu/rapid/press-release_IP-16-3562_en.htm.
• ● Gazprom (2013), “Gazprom and CNPC sign Agreement on major terms and conditions of pipeline gas supply from Russia to China via eastern route”, 05.09.2013, Date of Accession: 21.10.2016 from http://www.gazprom.com/press/news/2013/september/article170593/.
• ● Gazprom Company, “About Gazprom”, Date of Accession: 09.08.2016 from http://www.gazprom.com/about/.
• ● Geopolitical Futures ( 2020), “TurkStream: A New Route to Europe for Russian Gas”, 10.01.2020, Date of Accession: 02.02.2021 from https://geopoliticalfutures.com/turkstream-a-new-route-to-europe-for-russian-gas/.
• ● Gromov, Alexey (2009), “Energy Strategy of Russia for the Year 2030: Approaches, Priorities and Reference Points”, 23.10.2009, Date of Accession: 02.02.2021 from http://slideplayer.com/slide/8403192/26/images/20/Forecasted+dynamics+and+structure+of+Russian+gas+export.
• ● Grytsenko, Oksana & Sukhov, Oleg (2016), “Kremlin influence rises in Europe”, Kyiv Post, 17.11.2016, Date of Accession: 01.02.2021 from https://www.kyivpost.com/world/kremlin-influence-rises-europe.html.
• ● Gürsoy, Sezin İba & Seyaz, Adnan (2015), “Rusya’nın Enerji Politikaları: Dar Etkiden Geniş Etkiye Geçiş”, in Enerji Diplomasisi, (eds. by Hasret Çomak & Caner Sancaktar & Zafer Yıldırım), İstanbul: Beta Basım Yayım Dağıtım, pp. 193-214.
• ● Hürriyet (2015),“Rusya’yla ilişkilerde enerji hassas konu”, 07.10.2015, Date of Accession: 08.10.2016 from http://www.hurriyet.com.tr/rusyayla-iliskilerde-enerji-hassas-konu-30251447.
• ● Hürriyet Daily News (2016), “Putin says Turkey ‘apologized’ for downing of Russian jet”, 30.06.2016, Date of Accession: 12.10.2016 from http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/putin-says-turkey-apologized-for-downing-of-russian-jet-.aspx?pageID=238&nID=101107&NewsCatID=353.
• ● Interfax (2021), “Russia ready to break off relations with EU – Lavrov”, 12.02.2021, Date of Accession: 12.02.2021 from https://interfax.com/newsroom/top-stories/71077/.
• ● Isachenkov, Vladimir (2021), “Russia says it's ready for split if EU imposes new sanctions”, ABC News, 12.02.2021, Date of Accession: 12.02.2021 from https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/russia-ready-cut-ties-eu-ups-sanctions-diplomat-75847191.
• ● Kaveshnikov, Nikolay (2010), “The issue of energy security in relations between Russia and the European Union”, European Security, Vol.19, No.4, pp. 585-605.
• ● Khlebnikov, Alexey (2016), “Two years of Russia-West sanction war: Things won’t be the same again”, Russia Direct, 06.08.2016, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from http://www.russia-direct.org/debates/two-years-russia-west-sanction-war-things-wont-be-same-again.
• ● Kısacık, Sina (2017), “The Ukraine Policy of The Russian Federation and The Paradigms in European Energy Security”, Unpublished Ph. D. Dissertation, Yeditepe University Social Sciences Institute, Department of English Political Science and International Relations.
• ● Kısacık, Sina (2020), “The Rising Importance of Shanghai Cooperation Organization as a New Player in the Eurasian Energy Security: A Special Focus on Selected Oil and Natural Gas Pipeline Projects”, in Yeni Dünya Ekonomi ve Güvenlik Mimarisi / New World Architecture of Economy and Security (5. İstanbul Güvenlik Konferansı Tam Metin Bildiriler Kitabı) (eds. by Rüştü Salim Savaş Biçer & Ahmet Yıldız), İstanbul: TASAM Yayınları, pp. 547-577.
• ● Kısacık, Sina (2014), “A Farewell to South Stream: A Win-Win Situation for Russia and Turkey or A Zero-Sum Game for Russia and EU?”, Uluslararası Politika Akademisi, 17.12.2014, Date of Accession: 11/03/2017 from http://politikaakademisi.org/2014/12/17/a-farewell-to-south-stream-a-win-win-situation-for-russia-and-turkey-or-a-zero-sum-game-for-russia-and-eu/.
• ● Kısacık, Sina & Kaya, Furkan (2016), “An Assessment on the Future of Ongoing Turkish-Russian Relations: “Clash of Interests or Convergence of Interests”, International Multilingual Academic Journal, Vol. 3, No: 2, pp. 166-202.
• ● Kısacık, Sina & Kaya, Furkan (2016), “Russian Eurasianism versus American Eurasianism within the Perspectives of Brzezinski and Dugin: A Case Study on the Recent Ukrainian Crisis”, International Journal of Arts & Sciences, Vol.9, No: 2, Date of Accession: 03.01.2017 from http://www.universitypublications.net/ijas/0902/pdf/H6V949.pdf, pp. 161-185.
• ● Kısacık, Sina & Kaya, Furkan (2016), “Rusya Federasyonu’nun Yakın Çevre Doktrini Kapsamında Dağlık Karabağ ve Ukrayna Politikaları Anlamak”, in VIII. Uluslararası Uludağ Uluslararası İlişkiler Kongresi Küresel ve Bölgesel Sistemde Devlet ve Devletdışı Aktörler (eds. by Tayyar Arı & Ferhat Pirinççi), Bursa: DORA Basım-Yayın Dağıtım, pp. 45-84.
• ● Kısacık, Sina & Kaya, Furkan (2016), “Türkiye-Rusya Federasyonu Arasındaki Mevcut Gerginliğin Avrupa Enerji Güvenliğine Olası Yansımaları Hakkında Bir Değerlendirme”, in Mavi Elma: Türkiye-Avrupa İlişkileri (eds. by Ozan Örmeci & Hüseyin Işıksal), Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi, pp. 81-113.
• ● Korso, Tim (2021), “No Way Nord Stream 2 Won’t be Used as Russia’s Partners in EU Need Project, Official Says”, Sputnik International, 14.02.2021, Date of Accession: 15.02.2021 from https://sputniknews.com/russia/202102141082073591-no-way-nord-stream-2-wont-be-used-as-russias-partners-in-eu-need-project-official-says/.
• ● Kryukov, Valeriy (2014), “Mix of Russian Liquid Hydrocarbons: Reasons/Sources for Change and Further Prospects”, Perceptions, Vol. XIX, No: 3, pp. 61-80.
• ● Liboreiro, Jorge & Grobe, Stefan (2021), “Nord Stream 2: MEPs and US pressure Germany to stop Russia pipeline”, Euronews, 27.01.2021, Date of Accession: 30.01.2021 from https://www.euronews.com/2021/01/27/nord-stream-2-eu-parliament-and-biden-administration-pressure-germany-to-stop-russia-pipel.
• ● “Maritime Doctrine of Russian Federation 2020: APPROVED President Russian Federation Vladimir Putin, Pr-1387”, 27.07.2001, Date of Accession: 14.02.2017 from http://www.oceanlaw.org/downloads/arctic/Russian_Maritime_Policy_2020.pdf.
• ● Mastepanov, Alexey M. (2014), “On the development of the new Energy Strategy of Russia (ESR-2035)”, 30.10.2014, Date of Accession: 21.10.2016 from http://www.energystrategy.ru/ab_ins/source/Mastepanov_30.10.14.pdf.
• ● Matuszak, Sławomir & Górska, Anna (2010), “Ukraine and Russia: a hindered rapprochement”, Centre for Eastern Studies, Issue: 44, 15.12.2010, Date of Accession: 14.01.2017 from https://www.osw.waw.pl/sites/default/files/commentary_44_0.pdf.
• ● Ministry of Energy of the Russian Federation (2010), “Energy Strategy of Russia for Period up to 2030 - Approved by Decree N°1715-r of the Government of the Russian Federation dated 13 November 2009”, Date of Accession: 21.10.2016 from http://www.energystrategy.ru/projects/docs/ES-2030_(Eng).pdf.
• ● Mitrova, Tatiana & Molnar, Gergely (2015), “Russian Gas Market: Entering New Era”, Cedigaz Insights: Country Reports, 09.03.2015, Date of Accession: 18.02.2021 from https://www.cedigaz.org/russian-gas-market-entering-new-era/.
• ● “National Security Concept of the Russian Federation - Approved by Presidential Decree No. 24 of 10 January 2000”, Date of Accession: 08.11.2016 from http://www.mid.ru/en/foreign_policy/official_documents/-/asset_publisher/CptICkB6BZ29/content/id/589768.
• ● Nogayeva, Ainur (2011), Orta Asya’da ABD, Rusya ve Çin: Stratejik Denge Arayışları, Ankara: USAK Yayınları.
• ● Offshore Engineer (2020), “Timeline: Nord Stream 2 Gas Pipeline's Difficult Birth”, 15.12.2020, Date of Accession: 03.02.2020 from https://www.oedigital.com/news/483906-timeline-nord-stream-2-gas-pipeline-s-difficult-birth.
• ● Oil & Gas Journal (2021), “Power of Siberia extension 12 % complete”, 27.01.2021, Date of Accession: 29.01.2021 from https://www.ogj.com/pipelines-transportation/pipelines/article/14196324/power-of-siberia-extension-12-complete.
• ● Örmeci, Ozan & Kısacık, Sina (2018), Rusya Siyaseti ve Rus Dış Politikası: Teorik Çerçeve-Tarihsel Arka Plan-Örnek Olaylar, Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
• ● Örmeci, Ozan & Kısacık, Sina (2020), “Cutting the Gordian Knot: Turkish Foreign Policy Towards Cyprus During AK Party Era (2002–2020)”, STUDIA I ANALIZY NAUK O POLITYCE (Studies and Analyses of Political Science), Vol. 1, pp. 23-64.
• ● Örmeci, Ozan & Kısacık,Sina (2021), “Şanghay İşbirliği Örgütü’nün Enerji Güvenliği Politikaları Çerçevesinde Çin-Rusya İlişkilerini Anlamak”, İstanbul Kent Üniversitesi İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Dergisi, Vol. 2, No: 1, pp. 1-24.
• ● Özdal, Habibe (2015), “Rusya’nın Eski SSCB Ülkeleriyle İlişkileri”, in Putin’in Ülkesi: Yeni Yüzyıl Eşiğinde Rusya Federasyonu Analizi Siyasal Sistem, Ekonomi, Güvenlik, Dış Politika, (ed. by İrfan Kaya Ülger), Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık, pp. 427-456.
• ● Özdal, Habibe (2016), Sovyetler Birliği’nin Dağılmasından Kırım’ın İlhakına Rus Dış Politikasında Ukrayna, Ankara: USAK Yayınları.
• ● Özdemir, Volkan (2015), “Downing of Russian jet: Another test for Russia-Turkey relations”, Russia Direct, 26.11.2015, Date of Accession: 05.10.2016 from http://www.russia-direct.org/opinion/downing-russian-su-24-jet-another-test-russia-turkey-relations.
• ● Özden-Cankara, Pınar (2020), “2000’li Yıllarda Türkiye-Rusya İlişkileri”, in Türk Dış Politikası (2000’li Yıllar): Cilt III: 2000’den 2018’e kadar Alanlar ve Konular (eds. by Serkan Kekevi & Ömer Kurtbağ), Ankara: Berikan Yayınevi, Second Edition, pp. 465-502.
• ● Pallardy, Diane (2020), “Poland unlikely to prevent derogation for Nord Stream 2 gas pipeline”, Independent Commodity Intelligence Services (ICIS), 01.04.2020, Date of Accession: 10.02.2021 from https://www.icis.com/explore/resources/news/2020/04/01/10488615/poland-unlikely-to-prevent-derogation-for-nord-stream-2-gas-pipeline.
• ● Pamir, Necdet (2017), Enerjinin İktidarı: Enerji Kaynaklarını Elinde Tutan, Dünyayı Elinde Tutar! , İstanbul: Hayykitap, Third Edition.
• ● Rettman, Andrew (2016), “Sanctions to have little impact on Russia in 2016, US says”, EU Observer, 13.01.2016, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from https://euobserver.com/foreign/131812.
• ● Roberts, John & Powell, William (2017), “Gazprom Eyes TAP for Russian Gas”, Natural Gas World, 24.01.2017, Date of Accession: 28.02.2017 from http://www.naturalgasworld.com/gazprom-eyes-tap-for-russian-gas-35548.
• ● Russell, Martin (2015), “The Russian economy: Will Russia ever catch up?” , European Parliamentary Research Service, March 2015, Date of Accession: 09.08.2016 from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/IDAN/2015/551320/EPRS_IDA(2015)551320_EN.pdf.
• ● “Russian Federation Marine Doctrine: Vladimir Putin held a meeting to discuss the new draft of Russia’s Marine Doctrine”, 26.07.2015, Date of Accession: 14.02.2017 from http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/50060.
• ● Russian Times (2014), “95.7 % of Crimeans in referendum voted to join Russia - preliminary results”, 16.03.2014, Date of Accession: 14.02.2017 from https://www.rt.com/news/crimea-vote-join-russia-210/.
• ● Russian Times –RT (2014), “Russia and China seal historic $400bn gas deal”, 21.05.2014, Date of Accession: 19.10.2016 from https://www.rt.com/business/160068-china-russia-gas-deal/.
• ● Sandıklı, Atilla & İsmayıl, Elnur (2016), “Ukrayna Krizi’nin Bölgesel Güvenliğe Etkileri ve Türkiye”, in Bölgesel Sorunlar ve Türkiye (eds. by Atilla Sandıklı & Erdem Kaya), İstanbul: BİLGESAM Yayınları, pp. 341-383.
• ● Sakwa, Richard (2016), Frontline Ukraine: Crisis in the Borderlands, New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd.
• ● Shevtsova, Lilia (2016), “How the West Misjudged Russia Part 11 -The Sanctions on Russia: How Hard Do They Bite?” , The American Interest, 04.04.2016, Date of Accession: 16.09.2016 from http://www.the-american-interest.com/2016/04/04/the-sanctions-on-russia-how-hard-do-they-bite/.
• ● Stern, Jonathan & Pirani, Simon & Yafimava, Katja (2015), “Does the cancellation of South Stream signal a fundamental reorientation of Russian gas export policy?” , The Oxford Institute for Energy Studies, January 2015, Date of Accession: 10.03.2017 from https://www.oxfordenergy.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2015/01/Does-cancellation-of-South-Stream-signal-a-fundamental-reorientation-of-Russian-gas-export-policy-GPC-5.pdf .
• ● Szőke, Evelin (2020), “European gas puzzle: the TurkStream project – interview with Deputy CEO of construction, Erich Jurdik”, Ceenergy News, 26.11.2020, Date of Accession: 02.02.2021 from https://ceenergynews.com/interviews/european-gas-puzzle-the-turkstream-project-interview-with-deputy-ceo-of-construction-erich-jurdik/.
• ● TASS: Russian News Agency (2021), “Utilization of TurkStream up 2.2-fold in one year, 2.5-fold for Europe, says Gazprom CEO”, 08.01.2021, Date of Accession: 02.02 2021 from https://tass.com/economy/1242911.
• ● The Moscow Times (2016), “Turkish President Apologizes For Downing Russian Bomber”, 27.06.2016, Date of Accession: 12.10.2016 from https://themoscowtimes.com/articles/turkish-president-apologizes-for-downing-russian-bomber-53457.
• ● Telli, Azime (2015), “Rusya Federasyonu’nun Enerji Kaynakları”, in Putin’in Ülkesi: Yeni Yüzyıl Eşiğinde Rusya Federasyonu Analizi, (ed. by İrfan Kaya Ülger), Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık, pp. 189-204.
• ● Umbach, Frank (2014), “Russian-Ukrainian-EU gas conflict: who stands to lose most?”, NATO Review Magazine, Date of Accession: 17.09.2016 from http://www.nato.int/docu/review/2014/nato-energy-security-running-on-empty/Ukrainian-conflict-Russia-annexation-of-Crimea/EN/index.htm.
• ● U.S. Congress (2019), “116th Congress 1st Session H. R. 3206 To impose sanctions with respect to the provision of certain vessels for the construction of Russian energy export pipelines, and for other purposes”, 11.06.2019, Date of Accession: 15.02.2021 from https://www.congress.gov/116/bills/hr3206/BILLS-116hr3206ih.pdf.
• ● U.S. Department of State Bureau of Energy Resources (2020), “Protecting Europe’s Energy Security Act (PEESA)”, 20.10.2020, Date of Accession: 15.02.2021 from https://www.state.gov/protecting-europes-energy-security-act-peesa/#:~:text=PEESA %20provides %20the %20United %20States,Europe's %20political %20and %20economic %20welfare.
• ● U.S. Department of State Bureau of Energy Resources (2020), Protecting Europe’s Energy Security Act (PEESA) PEESA Public Guidance/FAQs”, 20.10.2020, Date of Accession: 15.02.2021 from https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/10/PEESA-Public-Guidance.pdf.
• ● Varandani, Suman (2015), “Russia's Fight against ISIS: Moscow Won’t Stop Targeting Islamic State Group in Syria after Ceasefire”, International Business Times, 24.12.2015, Date of Accession: 04.10.2016 from http://www.ibtimes.com/russias-fight-against-isis-moscow-wont-stop-targeting-islamic-state-group-syria-after-2239301.
• ● Varol-Sevim, Tuğçe (2014), ““Rus Dış Enerji Politikası ve Yeni Hedef Kuzey Doğu Asya”, Uluslararası İlişkiler, Vol. 11, No.41, Date of Accession: 12.02.2021 from https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/download/article-file/694316 , pp. 87-108.
• ● Xu, Xiaoje (2014), “World Energy China Outlook (2013-2014)”, 12.03.2014, Date of Accession: 02.02.2021 from https://www.slideshare.net/wyakab/china-energy-outlook.
• ● Yafimava, Katja (2013), “European Regulatory Challenges for South Stream: The Way Forward”, European Parliament, Brussels, 04.12.2013, Date of Accession: 22.09.2016 from https://www.naturalgaseurope.com/pdfs/gas-dialogues/Yafimava %20Presentation.pdf.
• ● Yergin, Daniel (2020), The New Map: Energy, Climate, and The Clash of Nations, Great Britain: Allan Lane-An Imprint of Penguin Books.