Elite athletes' characteristics in esthetic sports related to body composition, physiology, bone mineral density and nutrition

Öz

Aim: Nutritional deficiencies occur in elite athletes in aesthetic branches who suffer from intensive training programs and strict weight control. Increased disability, the weakening of the immune system, menstrual disorders and increased risk of bone fracture due to abnormal bone mineralization impair the quality of life and threaten the health of athletes. The purpose of this study was to determine body composition, nutrition and hydration status, bone mineral density levels and some physiological parameters in athletes interested in aesthetic sports.

Material and Methods: The study was participated by a total of 15 healthy artistic gymnasts, ice skaters and ballet dancers aged 18 and over and 10 individuals of similar age and physical qualities as the control group. The body composition, resting metabolic rate, hydration status, bone mineral density, nutritional habit and menstruation period of the athletes were assessed and some health parameters in blood about bone metabolism, anaemia and infection were evaluated.

Results: It was found that the athletes’ daily energy consumption and dietary intake of vitamin-mineral levels, vitamin D, Ca and Fe, are inadequate for especially female athletes. The fat ratio was higher and carbohydrate ratio was lower than the recommended daily energy distribution of athletes, 2/3 of athletes were dehydrated. The athletes did not have menstrual irregularities and eating disorder behaviours. The highest bone mineral density was in athletes, especially in gymnastics, while the lowest was in the control group. 

Conclusion: Although the athletes have higher values than the controls, due to insufficient energy, low carbohydrate and calcium intake and low bone density of female athletes, especially female athletes are suggested keeping under control for risk of female athlete triad.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Bone mineral density
• Female athlete triad
• Ice skating
• Ballet
• Dehydration
• Weight control

Kaynakça

1. Amorim, T., Wyon, M., Maia, J., Machado, J. C., Marques, F., Metsios, G. S., Koutedakis, Y. (2015). Prevalence of Low Bone Mineral Density in Female Dancers (Review). Sports Medicine, 45(2), 257-268.
2. Armstrong, L. E. (2005). Hydration Assessment Techniques, 63(6).
3. Armstrong, L. E., Ganio, M. S., Casa, D. J., Lee, E. C., McDermott, B. P., Klau, J. F., Lieberman, H. R. (2012). Mild dehydration affects mood in healthy young women. The Journal of Nutrition, 142(2), 382-388.
4. Arnaoutis G., Kavouras SA., Angelopoulou A., Skoulariki C., Bismpikou S., M. S. (2015). Fluid Balance During Training in Elite Young. J Strength Cond Res., 29(12), 3447-3452.
5. Beck KL, Mitchell S, Foskett A, Conlon CA & Von Hurst (2015). Dietary Intake, Anthropometric Characteristics, and Iron and Vitamin D Status of Female Adolescent Ballet Dancers Living in New Zealand. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab., 25(4), 335-43.
6. Bergeron, M. F., Laird, M. D., Marinik, E. L., Brenner, J. S., & Waller, J. L. (2009). Repeated-bout exercise in the heat in young athletes: physiological strain and perceptual responses. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985), 106(2), 476-85.
7. Burckhardt, P., Wynn, E., Krieg, M.-A., Bagutti, C., & Faouzi, M. (2011). The effects of nutrition, puberty and dancing on bone density in adolescent ballet dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science : Official Publication of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, 15(2), 51-60.
8. Casa, D. J., Armstrong, L. E., Hillman, S. K., Montain, S. J., Reiff, R. V., Rich, B. S. E., Stone, J. A. (2000). National Athletic Trainers' Association Position Statement: Fluid Replacement for Athletes. Journal of Athletic Training, 35(2), 212-224.

9. Castro-Sepúlveda, M., Astudillo, S., Álvarez, C., Zapata-Lamana, R., Zbinden-Foncea, H., Ramírez-Campillo, R., & Jorquera, C. (2015). Prevalence of dehydration before training in profesionel chilean soccer players. Nutricion Hospitalaria, 32(1), 308-11.
10. Constantini, N. W., Arieli, R., Chodick, G., & Dubnov-Raz, G. (2010). High prevalence of vitamin D insufficiency in athletes and dancers. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine : Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 20(5), 368-371.
11. Cupisti, A., D'Alessandro, C., Castrogiovanni, S., Barale, A., & Morelli, E. (2000). Nutrition survey in elite rhythmic gymnasts. The Journal of Sports Medicine and Physical Fitness, 40(4), 350-5.
12. D'Alessandro, C., Morelli, E., Evangelisti, I., Galetta, F., Franzoni, F., Lazzeri, D., Cupisti, A. (2007). Profiling the diet and body composition of sub-elite adolescent rhythmic gymnasts. Pediatric Exercise Science, 19(2), 215-227.
13. Deutz, R. C., Benardot, D., Martin, D. E., & Cody, M. M. (2000). Relationship between energy deficits and body composition in elite female gymnasts and runners. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 32(3), 659-668.
14. Di Cagno, A., Baldari, C., Battaglia, C., Guidetti, L., & Piazza, M. (2008). Anthropometric characteristics evolution in elite rhythmic gymnasts. Italian Journal of Anatomy and Embryology, 113(1), 29-35.
15. Doyle-Lucas, A. F., Akers, J. D., & Davy, B. M. (2010). Energetic efficiency, menstrual irregularity, and bone mineral density in elite professional female ballet dancers. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science : Official Publication of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, 14(1), 146-154.
16. Ducher, G., Kukuljan, S., Hill, B., Garnham, A. P., Nowson, C. A., Kimlin, M. G., & Cook, J. (2011). Vitamin D status and musculoskeletal health in adolescent male ballet dancers a pilot study. Journal of Dance Medicine & Science : Official Publication of the International Association for Dance Medicine & Science, 15(3), 99-107.
17. Ersoy, G. (2011). Egzersiz ve Spor Yapanlar İçin Beslenme (4.). Ankara: nobel yayın.
18. Filho, A. D., Guiramand, M., Sehl, P. L., & Leites, G. T. (2014). Hydration and Perceptual Responses Resulting from a Training Session Involving Female Rhythmic Gymnastics Athletes. Journal of Exercise, Sports & Orthopedics, 1(1), 5.
19. Georgopoulos, N. A., Roupas, N. D., Theodoropoulou, A., Tsekouras, A., Vagenakis, A. G., & Markou, K. B. (2010). The influence of intensive physical training on growth and pubertal development in athletes. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1205, 39-44.
20. Gibson, S., Gunn, P., & Maughan, R. J. (2012). Hydration, water intake and beverage consumption habits among adults. Nutrition Bulletin, 37(3), 182-192.
21. Ginde, A. A., Liu, M. C., & Camargo, C. A. (2009). Demographic differences and trends of vitamin D insufficiency in the US population, 1988-2004. Archives of Internal Medicine, 169(6), 626-32.
22. Hasbay, A. (2005). Balerinlerde Yeme Bozuklukları, Amenore ve Osteoporozis Görülme Durumunun (Kadın Sporcu Triadı) Saptanması. Hacettepe Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü Yönetmeliğinin Beslenme ve Diyetetik Programı için öngördüğü Doktora tezi.
23. Houston, D. K., Tooze, J. A., Hausman, D. B., Johnson, M. A., Nicklas, B. J., Miller, M. E., Kritchevsky, S. B. (2011). Change in 25-hydroxyvitamin D and physical performance in older adults. The Journals of Gerontology. Series A, Biological Sciences and Medical Sciences, 66(4), 430-6.
24. Jonnalagadda, S. S., Bernadot, D., & Nelson, M. (1998). Energy and nutrient intakes of the United States National Women's Artistic Gymnastics Team. International Journal of Sport Nutrition, 8(4), 331-44.
25. Karabudak, E., Köksal, E., Ertaş, Y., & Küçükerdönmez, Ö. (2016). Dietary intake of Turkish gymnast and non-gymnast children. Nutrition and Dietetics, 73(2), 184-189.
26. Kim, N. Y., Kim, H. K., Kim, S. J., Park, M. J., Kim, S. H., & Lee, J. S. (2005). A Study on Dietary Behaviors, Nutritional Status and Hematological Status in Female Ballet Majors in University. Korean Journal of Community Nutrition, 10(6), 835-844.
27. Kouloutbani, K., Efstathiou, T., & Apostolos, S. (2012). Eating disorders in the world of sport: the experiences of rhythmic gymnasts. Journal Biology of Exercise, 8(2), 19-31.
28. Kruusamäe, H., Maasalu, K., & Jürimäe, J. (2016). Bone Mineral Density in Elite DanceSport Athletes. Medical Problems of Performing Artists, 31(1), 25-8.
29. Litchtenbelt, W. D., Fogelholm, M., Otteenheijm, R., & Westerterp, K. R. (1995). Physical activity, body composition and bone density in ballet dancers. British Journal of Nutrition, 74, 439-451.
30. Lovell, G. (2008). Vitamin D status of females in an elite gymnastics program. Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine : Official Journal of the Canadian Academy of Sport Medicine, 18(2), 159-161.
31. Magal, M., Cain, R. J., Long, J. C., & Thomas, K. S. (2015). Pre-Practice Hydration Status and the Effects of Hydration Regimen on Colle- giate Division III Male Athletes. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 14(1), 23-28.
32. Meyer, F., Volterman, K. A., Timmons, B. W., & Wilk, B. (2012). Fluid Balance and Dehydration in the Young Athlete: Assessment Considerations and Effects on Health and Performance. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 6(6), 489-501.
33. Michopoulou, E., Avloniti, A., Kambas, A., Leontsini, D., Michalopoulou, M., Tournis, S., & Fatouros, I. G. (2011). Elite premenarcheal rhythmic gymnasts demonstrate energy and dietary intake deficiencies during periods of intense training. Pediatric Exercise Science, 23(4), 560-72.
34. Mielgo-Ayuso, J., Maroto-Sánchez, B., Luzardo-Socorro, R., Palacios, G., Palacios Gil-Antuñano, N., & González-Gross, M. (2015). Evaluation of nutritional status and energy expenditure in athletes. Nutricion Hospitalaria, 31(3), 227-236.
35. Osterberg, K. L., Horswill, C. A., & Baker, L. B. (2009). Pregame urine specific gravity and fluid intake by national basketball association players during competition. Journal of Athletic Training, 44(1), 53-57.
36. Sabbour, A., & El-Deeb, A. (2011). Evaluation of Menstrual Status, Bone Mineral Density and Body Composition in Egyptian Ballet Dancers. Bull. Fac. Ph. Th. Cairo Univ, 16:2(July), 61-69.
37. Sawka, M. N., Burke, L. M., Eichner, E. R., Maughan, R. J., Montain, S. J., & Stachenfeld, N. S. (2007). Exercise and fluid replacement. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise, 39(2), 377-390.
38. Soric, M., Misigoj-Durakovic, M., & Pedisic, Z. (2008). Dietary intake and body composition of prepubescent female aesthetic athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 18(3), 343-354.
39. Sundgot-Borgen, J., & Torstveit, M. K. (2004). Prevalence of Eating Disorders in Elite Athletes Is Higher Than in the General Population. Clin J Sport Med, 14(1), 25-32.
40. Sureira, T. M., Amancio, O. S., & Pellegrini Braga, J. A. (2012). Influence of artistic gymnastics on iron nutritional status and exercise-induced hemolysis in female athletes. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 22(4), 243-50.
41. Thigpen, L. K., Green, J. M., & OʼNeal, E. K. (2014). Hydration profile and sweat loss perception of male and female division II basketball players during practice. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 28(12), 3425-31.
42. Türkiye'ye Özgü Beslenme Rehberi. (2015). Retrieved from http://www.bdb.hacettepe.edu.tr/TOBR_kitap.pdf
43. Voelker, D. K., Gould, D., & Reel, J. J. (2014). Prevalence and correlates of disordered eating in female figure skaters. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(6), 696-704.
44. Ward, K. A., Das, G., Berry, J. L., Roberts, S. A., Rawer, R., Adams, J. E., & Mughal, Z. (2009). Vitamin D status and muscle function in post-menarchal adolescent girls. Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism, 94(2), 559-563.
45. Weimann, E. (2002). Gender-related differences in elite gymnasts: the female athlete triad. Journal of Applied Physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985), 92(5), 2146-52.
46. Ziegler, P. J., & Jonnalagadda, S. S. (2006). Nutrient intake is inadequate for US national synchronized skaters. Nutrition Research, 26(7), 313-317.
47. Ziegler, P. J., Jonnalagadda, S. S., & Lawrence, C. (2001). Dietary intake of elite figure skating dancers. Nutrition Research, 21(7), 983-992.
48. Ziegler, P., Nelson, J. a, Barratt-Fornell, a, Fiveash, L., & Drewnowski, a. (2001). Energy and macronutrient intakes of elite figure skaters. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 101(3), 319–325.