Araştırma Makalesi
BibTex RIS Kaynak Göster

Apartheid Rejiminde Devlet Şiddeti, Zihinsel Direniş ve Hafıza: Steve Biko ve Siyah Bilinç Hareketi

Yıl 2025, Sayı: 26, 159 - 180, 30.09.2025
https://doi.org/10.54842/ustich.1675793

Öz

Bu makale, Güney Afrika’daki Apartheid rejimini yalnızca bir ırk ayrımcılığı sistemi olarak değil, aynı zamanda bir devlet suçu rejimi olarak değerlendirmekte ve Steve Biko liderliğinde gelişen Siyah Bilinç Hareketi’ni bu bağlamda incelemektedir. Biko’nun “özgürlük önce zihinde başlar” ilkesi, fiziksel baskının yanı sıra zihinsel ve kültürel sömürgeleştirmeye karşı radikal bir karşı duruş sunmuştur. 1977’de polis işkencesi sonucu hayatını kaybeden Biko, hem Apartheid rejiminin kurumsallaşmış şiddetinin bir kurbanı hem de bu sisteme karşı geliştirilen zihinsel direnişin simgesidir. Çalışmada, Apartheid rejimi devlet şiddeti ve insan hakları ihlalleri bağlamında analiz edilirken, Siyah Bilinç Hareketi’nin kültürel hafıza, özsaygı ve kimlik inşası üzerindeki etkileri ele alınmıştır. Aynı zamanda Biko’nun mirasının post-Apartheid Güney Afrika’daki dönüşüm süreçlerinde ve küresel sosyal hareketlerdeki (BLM –Black Lives Matter – Siyahların yaşamı değerli) yansımaları da tartışılmaktadır.

Kaynakça

  • Alexander, Michelle. Yeni Jim Crow: Kitle İnfazlarının Irkçı Mantığı. Çev. M. Gündüz. İstanbul: Yeni İnsan Yayınevi, 2022. (Original work published 2010).
  • Arnold, Guy. Africa: A Modern History. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1981.
  • Başkaya, Fikret. Paradigmanın İflası. 10. bs. Ankara: Özgür Üniversite Yayınları, 2013.
  • Benhabib, Seyla. The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  • Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994.
  • Biko, Steve. I Write What I Like. Der. A. Stubbs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. (İlk baskı 1978).
  • Butler, Judith. Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso, 2009.
  • Chomsky, Noam. Güç ve İdeoloji. Çev. İ. Ergüden. İstanbul: BGST Yayınları, 2002.
  • Davis, Angela. Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016.
  • Drumbl, Mark A. Atrocity, Punishment, and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  • Fanon, Frantz. Yeryüzünün Lanetlileri. Çev. Richard Philcox. New York: Grove Press, 2004. (Original work published 1961).
  • Fanon, Frantz. Siyah Deri, Beyaz Maskeler. Çev. Charles Lam Markmann. New York: Grove Press, 1967. (Original work published 1952).
  • Freire, Paulo. Ezilenlerin Pedagojisi. Çev. Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Bloomsbury, 2005. (Original work published 1970).
  • Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
  • Gqola, Pumla Dineo. Reflecting Rogue: Inside the Mind of a Feminist. Johannesburg: MFBooks Joburg, 2017.
  • Hadfield, Leslie. Liberation and Development: Black Consciousness Community Programs in South Africa. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2017.
  • Kaya, İbrahim. Irkçılık ve Anti-Irkçılık. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2010.
  • Lodge, Tom. Black Politics in South Africa since 1945. London: Longman, 1983.
  • Maalouf, Amin. Ölümcül Kimlikler. Çev. A. Berk. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2004.
  • Mamdani, Mahmood. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
  • Magaziner, Daniel R. The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010.
  • Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1995.
  • Mandela, Nelson. Özgürlüğe Giden Uzun Yol. Çev. Ş. Tekeli. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2011.
  • Mbembe, Achille. Critique of Black Reason. Çev. Laurent Dubois. Durham: Duke University Press, 2017.
  • Minow, Martha. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass Violence. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.
  • Posel, Deborah. The Making of Apartheid, 1948–1961: Conflict and Compromise. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
  • Rodney, Walter. Avrupa Afrika’yı Nasıl Geri Bıraktı? Çev. S. Yalçın. İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2012.
  • Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
  • Said, Edward W. Şarkiyatçılık. Çev. B. Birkan. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları, 1999.
  • Sankara, Thomas. Thomas Sankara Speaks: The Burkina Faso Revolution 1983–87. New York: Pathfinder Press, 2007.
  • Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. London: Heinemann, 1986.
  • Timur, Taner. Irk ve Irkçılık Düşüncesi. İstanbul: Yordam Kitap, 2008.
  • Zeren, Bilge. Sömürgecilik Sonrası Afrika. İstanbul: Kalkedon Yayınları, 2015.
  • Akademik Makaleler Büyüktavşan, H. Z. “Güney Afrika'da Irkçı Apartheid Rejimi 1948–1994.” Africania-İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Afrika Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2021, 26–41.
  • Graham, Marcia. “Biko’s Ghost: The Iconography of Steve Biko and Political Memory in South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 40, no. 3 (2014): 521–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2014.911762.
  • Resmî Belge ve Uluslararası Sözleşmeler International Law Commission. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. 2001.
  • Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 2002. Article 7 (Crimes Against Humanity).
  • United Nations. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. 1973.
  • United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.
  • Belgesel ve Görsel Kaynaklar Amandla! A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony. Directed by Lee Hirsch. 2002.
  • Cry Freedom. Directed by Richard Attenborough. Universal Pictures, 1987.
  • Steve Biko: The Lost Interview. 1977. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/
  • The Black Power Mixtape 1967–1975. Directed by Göran Olsson. Story AB, 2011.
  • The Life and Times of Steve Biko. BBC, 1997.
  • Dijital Arşivler ve Online Kaynaklar African National Congress (ANC). "Official Website." Accessed [date]. https://www.anc1912.org.za/
  • Black Consciousness Movement Archive – Stanford University. Accessed [date]. https://www.stanford.edu/group/BC
  • United Nations. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. 1973.
  • United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948

State Violence, Mental Resistance and Memory in the Apartheid Regime: Steve Biko and the Black Consciousness Movement

Yıl 2025, Sayı: 26, 159 - 180, 30.09.2025
https://doi.org/10.54842/ustich.1675793

Öz

This article examines the Apartheid regime in South Africa not merely as a system of racial segregation, but as a regime of state crime, and analyzes the Black Consciousness Movement developed under the leadership of Steve Biko within this context. Biko’s principle that “freedom begins in the mind” presents a radical stance not only against physical oppression but also against mental and cultural colonization. Biko, who died in 1977 as a result of police torture, became both a victim of the institutionalized violence of the Apartheid regime and a symbol of the mental resistance developed against it. While the study analyzes the Apartheid regime in terms of state violence and human rights violations, it also explores the impact of the Black Consciousness Movement on cultural memory, self-respect, and identity formation. Furthermore, the article discusses the legacy of Biko in the context of post-Apartheid transformation processes in South Africa and its reflections in global social movements such as Black Lives Matter.

Kaynakça

  • Alexander, Michelle. Yeni Jim Crow: Kitle İnfazlarının Irkçı Mantığı. Çev. M. Gündüz. İstanbul: Yeni İnsan Yayınevi, 2022. (Original work published 2010).
  • Arnold, Guy. Africa: A Modern History. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1981.
  • Başkaya, Fikret. Paradigmanın İflası. 10. bs. Ankara: Özgür Üniversite Yayınları, 2013.
  • Benhabib, Seyla. The Rights of Others: Aliens, Residents, and Citizens. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
  • Bhabha, Homi K. The Location of Culture. London: Routledge, 1994.
  • Biko, Steve. I Write What I Like. Der. A. Stubbs. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002. (İlk baskı 1978).
  • Butler, Judith. Frames of War: When Is Life Grievable? London: Verso, 2009.
  • Chomsky, Noam. Güç ve İdeoloji. Çev. İ. Ergüden. İstanbul: BGST Yayınları, 2002.
  • Davis, Angela. Freedom Is a Constant Struggle: Ferguson, Palestine, and the Foundations of a Movement. Chicago: Haymarket Books, 2016.
  • Drumbl, Mark A. Atrocity, Punishment, and International Law. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
  • Fanon, Frantz. Yeryüzünün Lanetlileri. Çev. Richard Philcox. New York: Grove Press, 2004. (Original work published 1961).
  • Fanon, Frantz. Siyah Deri, Beyaz Maskeler. Çev. Charles Lam Markmann. New York: Grove Press, 1967. (Original work published 1952).
  • Freire, Paulo. Ezilenlerin Pedagojisi. Çev. Myra Bergman Ramos. New York: Bloomsbury, 2005. (Original work published 1970).
  • Gilroy, Paul. The Black Atlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993.
  • Gqola, Pumla Dineo. Reflecting Rogue: Inside the Mind of a Feminist. Johannesburg: MFBooks Joburg, 2017.
  • Hadfield, Leslie. Liberation and Development: Black Consciousness Community Programs in South Africa. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 2017.
  • Kaya, İbrahim. Irkçılık ve Anti-Irkçılık. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları, 2010.
  • Lodge, Tom. Black Politics in South Africa since 1945. London: Longman, 1983.
  • Maalouf, Amin. Ölümcül Kimlikler. Çev. A. Berk. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2004.
  • Mamdani, Mahmood. Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996.
  • Magaziner, Daniel R. The Law and the Prophets: Black Consciousness in South Africa, 1968–1977. Athens: Ohio University Press, 2010.
  • Mandela, Nelson. Long Walk to Freedom. Boston: Little, Brown & Company, 1995.
  • Mandela, Nelson. Özgürlüğe Giden Uzun Yol. Çev. Ş. Tekeli. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2011.
  • Mbembe, Achille. Critique of Black Reason. Çev. Laurent Dubois. Durham: Duke University Press, 2017.
  • Minow, Martha. Between Vengeance and Forgiveness: Facing History after Genocide and Mass Violence. Boston: Beacon Press, 1998.
  • Posel, Deborah. The Making of Apartheid, 1948–1961: Conflict and Compromise. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991.
  • Rodney, Walter. Avrupa Afrika’yı Nasıl Geri Bıraktı? Çev. S. Yalçın. İstanbul: Kaynak Yayınları, 2012.
  • Said, Edward W. Orientalism. New York: Pantheon Books, 1978.
  • Said, Edward W. Şarkiyatçılık. Çev. B. Birkan. İstanbul: Metis Yayınları, 1999.
  • Sankara, Thomas. Thomas Sankara Speaks: The Burkina Faso Revolution 1983–87. New York: Pathfinder Press, 2007.
  • Thiong’o, Ngũgĩ wa. Decolonising the Mind: The Politics of Language in African Literature. London: Heinemann, 1986.
  • Timur, Taner. Irk ve Irkçılık Düşüncesi. İstanbul: Yordam Kitap, 2008.
  • Zeren, Bilge. Sömürgecilik Sonrası Afrika. İstanbul: Kalkedon Yayınları, 2015.
  • Akademik Makaleler Büyüktavşan, H. Z. “Güney Afrika'da Irkçı Apartheid Rejimi 1948–1994.” Africania-İnönü Üniversitesi Uluslararası Afrika Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2021, 26–41.
  • Graham, Marcia. “Biko’s Ghost: The Iconography of Steve Biko and Political Memory in South Africa.” Journal of Southern African Studies 40, no. 3 (2014): 521–539. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057070.2014.911762.
  • Resmî Belge ve Uluslararası Sözleşmeler International Law Commission. Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts. 2001.
  • Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. 2002. Article 7 (Crimes Against Humanity).
  • United Nations. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. 1973.
  • United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948.
  • Belgesel ve Görsel Kaynaklar Amandla! A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony. Directed by Lee Hirsch. 2002.
  • Cry Freedom. Directed by Richard Attenborough. Universal Pictures, 1987.
  • Steve Biko: The Lost Interview. 1977. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/
  • The Black Power Mixtape 1967–1975. Directed by Göran Olsson. Story AB, 2011.
  • The Life and Times of Steve Biko. BBC, 1997.
  • Dijital Arşivler ve Online Kaynaklar African National Congress (ANC). "Official Website." Accessed [date]. https://www.anc1912.org.za/
  • Black Consciousness Movement Archive – Stanford University. Accessed [date]. https://www.stanford.edu/group/BC
  • United Nations. International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid. 1973.
  • United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights. 1948
Toplam 48 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Konular Afrika Çalışmaları
Bölüm Özel Bölüm: Devlet Suçu, Propaganda ve Kültürel Yıkım
Yazarlar

Yeter Solak 0000-0002-8141-113X

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Eylül 2025
Gönderilme Tarihi 14 Nisan 2025
Kabul Tarihi 14 Temmuz 2025
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2025 Sayı: 26

Kaynak Göster

Chicago Solak, Yeter. “Apartheid Rejiminde Devlet Şiddeti, Zihinsel Direniş ve Hafıza: Steve Biko ve Siyah Bilinç Hareketi”. Uluslararası Suçlar ve Tarih, sy. 26 (Eylül 2025): 159-80. https://doi.org/10.54842/ustich.1675793.