EXAMINING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF CONSTANT TIME DELAY INSTRUCTION IN TEACHING TURKISH SYNONYMS TO STUDENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the constant time delay instructional procedure in teaching Turkish synonym word pairs to students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). A total of six students with ASD participated in the study: one in a pilot phase, three in the primary implementation, and two as alternates. Effectiveness, generalization, maintenance, and social validity data were collected. Social validity data were obtained from the parents of the three male students who participated in the primary implementation. The study was designed according to a multiple-probe design across participants, one of the single-case experimental research designs. Study data were collected using a criterion-referenced measurement instrument consisting of 25 Turkish synonym pairs (i.e., 50 target words with their corresponding synonyms). The response interval for a correct response was set at 3 s. A verbal prompt was used as the controlling prompt. Error correction was implemented when participants responded incorrectly or failed to respond. Study data were first analyzed independently by two experts in special education and then reported in accordance with the consensus agreement principle. Findings regarding effectiveness were analyzed using the Tau-U method, whereas social validity findings were analyzed through descriptive content analysis. Results indicated that the constant time delay procedure was an effective method for teaching Turkish synonym word pairs to students with ASD. Several recommendations were provided for researchers for future studies.

Keywords

• Autism Spectrum Disorder,
• Turkish Language
• Constant Time Delay Instruction;
• Single-Case Research Design

OSB’lİ ÖĞRENCİLERE TÜRKÇE EŞ ANLAMLI KELİMELERİN ÖĞRETİMİNDE SABİT BEKLEME SÜRELİ ÖĞRETİMİN ETKİLİLİĞİNİN İNCELENMESİ

Abstract

Bu araştırmanın amacı sabit bekleme süreli öğretim yönteminin Otizm spektrum bozukluğu (OSB) tanılı öğrencilere Türkçe eş anlamlı kelimelerin öğretiminde etkililiğinin incelenmesidir. Araştırmada 1 pilot, 3 esas çalışma ve 2 yedek olmak üzere toplam 6 OSB’li öğrenci katılmıştır. Araştırmada etkililik, genelleme, kalıcılık ve sosyal geçerlik verileri toplanmıştır. Araştırmanın sosyal geçerlik verileri esas çalışmaya katılan üç erkek ebeveynden toplanmıştır. Araştırma tek denekli araştırma yöntemlerinden denekler arası yoklama evreli çoklu yoklama modeline göre desenlenmiştir. Araştırma verileri yirmi beş Türkçe eş anlamlı kelime çifti olmak üzere toplam elli eş anlamlısı olan kelimeden oluşan ölçüt bağımlı ölçü aracı ile toplanmıştır. Araştırmada doğru tepki süresi 3 sn. olarak belirlenmiştir. Kontrol edici ipucu türü olarak sözel ipucu kullanılmıştır. Araştırmada deneklerin yanlış tepkilerinde ve tepki vermemeleri durumunda hata düzeltmesi uygulanmıştır. Araştırma verileri iki özel eğitim alan uzmanı tarafından öncelikle bağımsız olarak analiz edilmiş daha sonra görüş birliği ilkesine uygun olarak raporlanmıştır. Araştırmanın bulguları etkililik için Tau-U yöntemi ile sosyal geçerlik bulguları betimsel içerik analizi ile analiz edilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda sabit bekleme süreli öğretimin OSB’li öğrencilere Türkçe eş anlamlı kelimelerin öğretiminde etkili bir yöntem olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. İleriki araştırmalar için araştırmacılara çeşitli önerilerde bulunulmuştur.

Keywords

• Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğu,
• Türkçe,
• Sabit Bekleme Süreli Öğretim,
• Tek Denekli Araştırma,

References

1. Akbar, M., Loomis, R., & Paul, R. (2013). The interplay of language on executive functions in children with ASD. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7(3), 494–501. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2012.09.001
2. Alak, G., & Ökcün Akçamuş, M. Ç. (2025). Relationship of nonverbal communication functions with structural and pragmatic language skills in children with ASD. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 26(4), 472–487. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.1434897
3. Alsahafi, M. (2023). The relationship between depth of academic English vocabulary knowledge and academic success of second language university students. SAGE Open, 13(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440231153342
4. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (5th ed.). American Psychiatric Publishing.
5. Armstrong, E. M., & Ferguson, A. (2010). Language, meaning, context, and functional communication. Aphasiology, 24(4), 480–496. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030902775157
6. Aslan, S., & Acarlar, F. (2022). Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan çocukların sesbilgisel özelliklerinin incelenmesi. Muğla Sıtkı Koçman Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(2), 615–626. https://doi.org/10.21666/muefd.945064
7. Çoban Sural, Ü., & Yaşar Sağlık, Z. (2024). Next-generation learning experience: The effect of technology-assisted and printed context-based vocabulary activities on vocabulary knowledge and learning motivation. Education and Information Technologies, 29(16), 20823–20853. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-024-12688-x
8. Ganz, J.B., Flores, M.M. The Effectiveness of Direct Instruction for Teaching Language to Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Identifying Materials. J Autism Dev Disord 39, 75–83 (2009). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-008-0602-6

9. Garden, P. D. (2022). Vocabulary instruction in the early grades. Texas Association for Literacy Education Yearbook, 9, 75–82.
10. Binder, K. S., Cote, N. G., Lee, C., Bessette, E., and Vu, H. (2017) Beyond breadth: the contributions of vocabulary depth to reading comprehension among skilled readers. Journal of Research in Reading, 40: 333–343. doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.12069.
11. Bohlmann, N. L., Maier, M. F., & Palacios, N. (2015). Bidirectionality in self-regulation and expressive vocabulary: Comparisons between monolingual and dual language learners in preschool. Child Development, 86(4), 1094–1111. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12375
12. Brignell, A., Chenausky, K. V., Song, H., Zhu, J., Suo, C., & Morgan, A. T. (2018). Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 2018(11), CD012324. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2
13. Cai, M., Zhang, D., Koda, K., & Zhang, Y. (2024). The relationship between vocabulary depth knowledge, word reading, and reading comprehension. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 245, 105951. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2024.105951
14. Hartley, C., & Allen, M. L. (2014). Brief report: Generalisation of word–picture relations in children with autism and typically developing children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(8), 2064–2071. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2074-1
15. Hartley, C., & Allen, M. L. (2015). Symbolic understanding of pictures in low-functioning children with autism: The effects of iconicity and naming. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 45(1), 15–30. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-2007-4
16. Kalandadze, T., Norbury, C., Nærland, T., & Næss, K.-A. B. (2018). Figurative language comprehension in individuals with autism spectrum disorder: A meta-analytic review. Autism, 22(2), 99–117. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362361316668652
17. Kempert, S., Schalk, L., & Saalbach, H. (2019). Language as tool for learning: A review of the communicative and cognitive functions of language and its relevance for academic learning. Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht, 66(3), 176–195. https://doi.org/10.2378/PEU2018.art19d
18. Kim, Y. T., Kang, J. K., & Kim, J. A. (2019). A meta-analysis of the relationship between children’s language ability and socio-emotional development. Communication Sciences & Disorders, 24(2), 274–287. https://doi.org/10.12963/csd.19608
19. Koçbeker, B. N., & Saban, A. (2005). Otistik bir çocuğun yabancı dil öğrenimine ilişkin örnek olay incelemesi. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14, 401–427. https://izlik.org/JA33TM93MH
20. Kuang, J., & Bicchieri, C. (2024). How language framing shapes the perception of social norms. Current Opinion in Psychology, 60, 101886. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2024.101886
21. Laçin, E. (2024). Increasing vocabulary and listening comprehension during adapted shared reading: An intervention for preschoolers with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 54(12), 4376–4393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-023-06149-6
22. Lampri, S., Peristeri, E., Marinis, T., & Andreou, M. (2024). Figurative language processing in autism spectrum disorders: A review. Autism Research, 17(4), 674–689. https://doi.org/10.1002/aur.3069
23. Luo, Y., Koda, K., & Zhang, D. (2021). The effect of vocabulary depth and breadth on English listening comprehension can depend on how comprehension is measured. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 657573. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.657573
24. Martin-Chang, S. L., & Gould, O. N. (2008). Revisiting print exposure: Exploring differential links to vocabulary, comprehension and reading rate. Journal of Research in Reading, 31(3), 273–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9817.2008.00371.x
25. McKernan, E. P., & Kim, S. H. (2022). School-entry language skills as predictors of concurrent and future academic, social, and adaptive skills in kindergarteners with ASD. The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 36(5), 899–920. https://doi.org/10.1080/13854046.2021.1950211
26. Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı. (2024). Ortaokul Türkçe dersi öğretim programı. Türkiye Yüzyılı Maarif Modeli.
27. Naigles, L. R., Kelley, E., Troyb, E., & Fein, D. (2013). Residual difficulties with categorical induction in children with a history of autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 43(9), 2048–2061. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-012-1754-y
28. Norbury, C. F., Griffiths, H., & Nation, K. (2010). Sound before meaning: Word learning in autistic disorders. Neuropsychologia, 48(14), 4012–4019. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.10.015
29. Oğuz, Ö., Çakır, B., & Şentürk, A. (2022). Speech, language and communication differences before autism diagnosis: The perspectives of parents. Kastamonu Education Journal, 30(1), 161–173. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.803568
30. Parker, R. I., & Vannest, K. J. (2009). An improved effect size for single-case research: Nonoverlap of all pairs. Behavior Therapy, 40(4), 357–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2008.10.006
31. Parker, R. I., Vannest, K. J., Davis, J. L., & Sauber, S. B. (2011). Combining nonoverlap and trend for single-case research: Tau-U. Behavior Therapy, 42(2), 284–299. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.08.006
32. Parsons, L., Cordier, R., Munro, N., Joosten, A., & Speyer, R. (2017). A systematic review of pragmatic language interventions for children with autism spectrum disorder. PLoS ONE, 12(4), e0172242. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172242
33. Qian, D. D. (2002). Investigating the relationship between vocabulary knowledge and academic reading performance: An assessment perspective. Language Learning, 52(3), 513–536. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9922.00193
34. Read, J. (2004). Plumbing the depths: How should the construct of vocabulary knowledge be defined? In P. Bogaards & B. Laufer (Eds.), Vocabulary in a second language: Selection, acquisition, and testing (pp. 209–227). John Benjamins. https://doi.org/10.1075/lllt.10.15rea
35. Sarı, H., & Gökdağ, H. (2019). Özel gereksinimli bireylerde dil gelişimi. Vize Akademik. Schaeffer, J., Abd El-Raziq, M., Castroviejo, E. et al. (2023). Language in autism: domains, profiles and co-occurring conditions. J Neural Transm 130, 433–457 https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-023-02592-y
36. Syriopoulou-Delli, C. K., Agaliotis, I., & Papaefstathiou, E. (2016). Social skills characteristics of students with autism spectrum disorder. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 64(1), 35–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2016.1219101
37. Tekin-İftar, E. (2025). Uygulamalı davranış analizi. Vize Akademik.
38. Townsend, D., Filippini, A., Collins, P., & Biancarosa, G. (2012). Evidence for the importance of academic word knowledge for the academic achievement of diverse middle school students. The Elementary School Journal, 112(3), 497–518. https://doi.org/10.1086/663301
39. Ünözkan-Aksu, G., & Cangi, M. E. (2024). Otizm spektrum bozukluğu olan bireylerde ve tipik gelişen çocuklarda zihin kuramı ve pragmatik dil becerileri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, 25(1), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.1099297
40. Vannest, K. J., & Ninci, J. (2015). Evaluating intervention effects in single-case research designs. Journal of Counseling & Development, 93(4), 403–411. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12038
41. Vogindroukas, I., Stankova, M., Chelas, E. N., & Proedrou, A. (2022). Language and speech characteristics in autism. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment, 18, 2367–2377. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S331987
42. Wright, T. S., & Cervetti, G. N. (2017). A systematic review of the research on vocabulary instruction that impacts text comprehension. Reading Research Quarterly, 52(2), 203–226. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.163
43. Yavuz, H. M., Selçuk, B., & Korkmaz, B. (2017). Social competence in children with autism. International Journal of Developmental Disabilities, 65(1), 10–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/20473869.2017.1346224
44. Zaidman-Zait, A., Mirenda, P., Szatmari, P., Duku, E., Smith, I. M., Zwaigenbaum, L., Vaillancourt, T., Kerns, C., Volden, J., Waddell, C., Bennett, T., Georgiades, S., Ungar, W. J., & Elsabbagh, M. (2021). Profiles and predictors of academic and social school functioning among children with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 50(5), 656–668. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2020.1750021