Gelişmekte Olan Ekonomilerde Uluslararasılaşma: Gelişmekte Olan ve Gelişmiş Ülkelerde İhracat Çeşitlendirmesi Eğilimi Üzerine Değerlendirme ve Önermeler

Öz

Bu çalışma ilgili yazın doğrultusunda gelişmekte olan ekonomilerdeki firmaların ihracat çeşitlendirmesini ele almaktadır. Gelişmekte olan ekonomilerdeki firmalar emek, sermaye ve ürün pazarlarının zayıf, risk ve belirsizliğin yüksek olduğu çevrelerde faaliyet göstermektedirler. Bu ekonomilerdeki firmalar sürdürülebilir rekabet avantajı yaratmak amacı ile uluslararası faaliyette bulunmaktadırlar. Bu ekonomilerde uluslararasılaşma sürecinin erken aşamalarında en çok kullanılan yöntemlerden birisi ihracattır. Firmalar, mevcut ürünlerle pazar paylarını artırarak, ürün ya da pazarlarını çeşitlendirerek ihracat faaliyetinde bulunmaktadırlar. Firmaların ihracat faaliyetini genişletirken başvurduğu ürün çeşitlendirmesinin gelişmekte olan ve gelişmiş ülkelerde farklılaştığı ileri sürülmektedir. Ürün çeşitlendirme, maliyet liderliği, markalaşma gibi farklı stratejilerle dış pazarlara açılan firmaların, gelişmiş ve diğer gelişmekte olan ekonomilerde ihracat performansı farklılaşmaktadır. Firmaların pazar çeşitlendirmesinde, kurumsal çevrelerine benzer özellikler gösteren diğer gelişmekte olan ekonomilerde ya da fırsat ve kaynakların daha çok bulunduğu gelişmiş ülkelerde ihracat faaliyeti göstereceğine ilişkin farklı görüşler bulunmaktadır. Yazında ihracat çeşitlendirmesine ilişkin çalışmalar bulunmasına rağmen, gelişmekte olan ekonomilerdeki firmaların çeşitli stratejilerle gelişmiş ya da gelişmekte olan diğer ekonomilere eğilimlerine ve elde edilen ihracat performansının bu ekonomi gruplarındaki farklılaşma durumuna ilişkin araştırmalar kısıtlıdır. Bu nedenle bu çalışma, firmaların uluslararasılaşma yöntemlerinden olan ihracatın, diğer gelişmekte olan ya da gelişmiş ekonomilerde çeşitlendirmesini tartışmaktadır. Bu doğrultuda, ilerideki çalışmalarda araştırılabilecek önermeler sunarak, gelişmekte olan ekonomilerdeki ihracat çeşitlendirmesi ile ilgili anlayışı ilerletmeyi amaçlamaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Uluslararasılaşma
• İhracat
• Gelişmekte olan ekonomiler
• İhracat çeşitlendirmesi

Internationalization in Emerging Economies: An Assessment and Propositions on Export Diversification Tendency in Emerging and Developed Countries

Öz

This study explores export diversification in emerging economies within the frame of the relevant literature. In these economies, firms operate in uncertain and risky environments where labor, product and capital markets are inefficient. Firms in these economies internationalize to create sustainable competitive advantage. In such economies, one of the common ways of internationalization is export in early stages of the process. Firms internationalize by expanding existing products, creating new products or new markets. Firms in such economies target developed or other emerging economies with different product diversification strategies. Accordingly, firms’ export performance in developed and other emerging economies differs depending on various strategies, such as product diversification, cost leadership, branding. In market diversification, there have been opposite views about emerging economy firms’ expansion into other emerging economies with similar institutional environments and developed ones which are rich in terms of resources. Although the literature is rich in terms of export diversification, studies on whether emerging economy firms tend to expand their activities into developed ones or other emerging economies through various strategies and where they perform better in terms of exports, are limited. Therefore, this paper discusses emerging economy firms’ export diversification in developed and other emerging economies. In this regard, it aims to advance the understanding on export diversification in emerging economies by providing propositions that can be investigated in future research.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Internationalization
• Export
• Emerging economies
• Export diversification

Kaynakça

1. Acaravcı, A. ve Kargı, G. (2015). Türkiye’de ihracatın çeşitlendirilmesi ve ekonomik büyüme. Uluslararası Ekonomi ve Yenilik Dergisi, 1(1), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.20979/ueyd.182891
2. Ahmad, M. and Jabeen, G. (2023). Relating economic openness and export diversification to eco-efficiency: Is green innovation critical? International Journal of Finance & Economics, 29(3), 3203-3225. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.2825
3. Aitken, B., Hanson, G. H. and Harrison, A. E. (1997). Spillovers, foreign investment, and export behavior. Journal of International Economics, 43(1-2), 103-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-1996(96)01464-X
4. Akar, G. ve Ay, A. (2019). Ürün ve ülke açısından ihracat çeşitlendirmesi: Türkiye üzerine bir değerlendirme. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü̈ Elektronik Dergisi, 10(1), 116-127. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/gumus/issue/44146/460996
5. Aldan, A. and Çulha, O. Y. (2016). The role of the extensive margin in export of Turkey: A comparative analysis. Central Bank Review, 16(2), 59-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cbrev.2016.05.002
6. Amurgo-Pacheco, A. and Pierola, M. D. (2008). Patterns of export diversification in developing countries: Intensive and extensive margins. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4473, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4473
7. Artopoulos, A., Friel, D. and Hallak, J. C. (2013). Export emergence of differentiated goods from developing countries: Export pioneers and business practices in Argentina. Journal of Development Economics, 105, 19-35. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jdeveco.2013.07.001
8. Aulakh, P. S., Kotabe, M. and Teegen, H. (2000). Export strategies and performance of firms from emerging economies: Evidence from Brazil, Chile and Mexico. Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 342-361. https://doi.org/10.2307/1556399

9. Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639101700108
10. Brenton, P. and Newfarmer, R. (2007). Watching more than the Discovery channel: Export cycles and diversification in development. World Bank Policy Research Working Paper 4302, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.1596/1813-9450-4302
11. Brouthers, L. E., O’Donell, E. and Hadjimarcou, J. (2005). Generic product strategies for emerging market exports into triad nation markets: A mimetic isomorphism approach. Journal of Management Studies, 42(1), 225-245. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00495.x
12. Brouthers, L. E. and Xu, K. (2002). Product stereotypes, strategy and performance satisfaction: The case of chinese exporters. Journal of International Business Studies, 33(4), 657-677. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8491038
13. Cadot, O., Carrere, C. and Strauss-Kahn, V. (2011). Export diversification: What is behind the hump? The Review of Economics and Statistics, 93(2), 590-605. https://doi.org/10.1162/REST_a_00078
14. Canh, N. P. and Thanh, S. D. (2022). The dynamics of export diversification, economic complexity and economic growth cycles: Global evidence. Foreign Trade Review, 57(3) 234-260. https://doi.org/10.1177/00157325209704
15. Cuervo-Cazurra, A. and Genc, M. (2008). Transforming disadvantages into advantages: developing-country MNEs in the least developed countries. Journal of International Business Studies, 39(6), 957-979. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400390
16. Çınar, Y. ve Göksel, T. (2010). İhracatta bölgesel çeşitlendirme ve istikrar. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 65(2), 29-57. https://doi.org/10.1501/SBFder_0000002169
17. Damijan, J. P., Polanec, S. and Prasnikar, J. (2004). Self-selection, export market heterogeneity and productivity improvements: Firm level evidence from Slovenia. LICOS Discussion Paper, 148, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, LICOS Centre for Transition Economics, Leuven. Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/handle/10419/74889 in 10.11.2022.
18. Dawar, N. and Frost, T. (1999). Competing with giants: Survival strategies for local companies in emerging markets. Harvard Business Review, 77(2), 119-129.
19. Del Sol, P. and Kogan, J. (2007). Regional competitive advantage based on pioneering economic reforms: the case of Chilean FDI. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(6), 901-927. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400299
20. Dunning, J. H. (1980). Toward an eclectic theory of international production: Some empirical tests. Journal of International Business Studies, 11(1), 9-31. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490593
21. Dunning, J. H. (1988). The eclectic paradigm of international production: A restatement and some possible extensions. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(1), 1-31. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8490372
22. Dunning, J. H. (2001). The eclectic (OLI) paradigm of international production: Past, present and future. International Journal of the Economics of Business, 8(2), 173-190. https://doi.org/10.1080/13571510110051441
23. Ekmen, S. and Erlat, G. (2013). Export diversification and competitiveness: Intensive and extensive margins of Turkey. Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 24(88), 35-64. 10.5455/ey.35201
24. Estrin, S., K. E., Meyer, Wright, M. and Foliano, F. (2008). Export propensity and intensity of subsidiaries in emerging economies. International Business Review, 17(5), 574-586. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ibusrev.2008.04.002
25. Evenett, S. J. and Venables, A. J. (2002). Export growth in developing countries: Market entry and bilateral trade flows. Retrieved from https://users.nber.org/~confer/2002/si2002/venables.pdf in 10.11.2022.
26. Filatotchev, I., Liu, X., Buck, T. and Wright, M. (2009). The export orientation and export performance of high-technology SMEs in emerging markets: The effects of knowledge transfer by returnee entrepreneurs. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(6), 1005-1021. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2008.105
27. Funke, M. and Ruhwedel, R. (2001). Export variety and export performance: Empirical evidence from East Asia. Journal of Asian Economics, 12(4), 493-505. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1049-0078(01)00100-2
28. Gubbi, S. R., Aulakh, P. S., Ray, S., Sarkar, M. B. and Chittoor, R. (2010). Do international acquisitions by emerging-economy firms create shareholder value? The case of Indian firms. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(3), 397-418. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.47
29. Haddoud, M. Y., Jones, P. and Newbery, R. (2021). Export intention in developing countries: A configuration approach to managerial success factors. Journal of Small Business Management, 59(1), 107-135. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsbm.12470
30. Haini, H., Loon, P. W. and Li, P. L. (2023). Can export diversification promote export upgrading? Evidence from an oil-dependent economy. Resources Policy, 80, 103292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resourpol.2022.103292
31. Herzer, D. and Nowak-Lehnmann D. F. (2006). What does export diversification do for growth? An econometric analysis. Applied Economics, 38(15), 1825-1838. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036840500426983
32. Hitt, M. A., Hoskisson, R. E. and Kim, H. (1997). International diversification: Effects on innovation and firm performance in product-diversified firms. Academy of Management Journal, 40(4), 767-798. https://doi.org/10.5465/256948
33. Hoskisson, R.E., Eden, L., Lau, C. M. and Wright, M. (2000). Strategy in emerging economies. The Academy of Management Journal, 43(3), 249-267. https://doi.org/10.5465/1556394
34. Hoskisson, R. E., Wright, M., Filatotchev, I. and Peng, M. W. (2013). Emerging multinationals from mid-range economies: The influence of institutions and factor markets. Journal of Management Studies, 50(7), 1295-1321. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01085.x
35. Hummels, D. and Klenow, P. J. (2005). The variety and quality of a nation's exports. The American Economic Review, 95(3), 704-723. 10.1257/0002828054201396
36. Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J. E. (1977). The internationalization process of the firm- a model of knowledge development and increasing foreign market commitments. Journal of International Business Studies, 8(1), 23-32. http://www.jstor.org/stable/254397
37. Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J. E. (1990). The mechanism of internationalisation. International Marketing Review, 7(4), 11-24. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651339010137414
38. Johanson, J. and Vahlne, J. E. (2009). The Uppsala internationalization process model revisited: From liability of foreignness to liability of outsidership. Journal of International Business Studies, 40(9), 1411-1431. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.24
39. Johanson, J. and Wiedersheim-Paul, F. (1975). The internationalization of the firm - four Swedish cases. Journal of Management Studies, 12(3), 305-323. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.1975.tb00514.x
40. Jongwanich, J. (2020). Export diversification, margins and economic growth at industrial level: Evidence from Thailand. The World Economy, 43(10), 2674-2722. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12921
41. Khanna, T. and Palepu, K. (1997). Why focused strategies may be wrong for emerging markets. Harvard Business Review, 75(4), 41-51.
42. Kim, T. Y., Delios, A. and Xu, D. (2010). Organizational geography, experiential learning and subsidiary exit: Japanese foreign expansions in China, 1979-2001. Journal of Economic Geography, 10(4), 579-597. https://doi.org/10.1093/jeg/lbq014
43. Koed-Madsen, T. (1989). Successful export marketing management: Some empirical evidence. International Marketing Review, 6(4), 41-57. https://doi.org/10.1108/EUM0000000001518
44. Lectard, P. and Rougier, E. (2018). Can developing countries gain from defying comparative advantage? Distance to comparative advantage, export diversification and sophistication, and the dynamics of specialization. World Development, 102, 90-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2017.09.012
45. Lee, C. C., Xing, W., Wu, W. and Lee, C. C. (2023). Export diversification and the green economy: the key role of economic risk. Technological and Economic Development of Economy, 29(2), 717-740. https://doi.org/10.3846/tede.2023.18532
46. Lee, C. C., Yuan, Z. and Ho, S. J. (2022). How does export diversification affect income inequality? International evidence. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 63, 410-421. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2022.06.010
47. Lee, D. and Zhang, H. (2022). Export diversification in low-income countries and small states: Do country size and income level matter? Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 60, 250-265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.strueco.2021.11.017
48. Li, D., Wang, X., Xu, Y. and Ren, Y. (2022). Analysis of export diversification and impact of globalisation on income inequality: Evidence from Asian countries. Global Economic Review, 51(3), 195-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/1226508X.2022.2120518
49. Luo, Y. and Tung, R. L. (2007). International expansion of emerging market enterprises: A springboard perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 38(4), 481-498. https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.jibs.8400275
50. Mathews, J. A. (2002). Competitive advantages of the latecomer firm: A resource-based account of industrial catch-up strategies. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19(4), 467-488. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020586223665
51. Mathews, J. A. (2006a). Dragon multinationals: New players in 21st century globalization. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 23(1), 5-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-006-6113-0
52. Mathews, J. A. (2006b). Catch-up strategies and the latecomer effect in industrial development. New Political Economy, 11(3), 313-335. https://doi.org/10.1080/13563460600840142
53. Meyer, K. E. and Peng, M. W. (2016). Theoretical foundations of emerging economy business research. Journal of International Business Studies, 47(1), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2015.34
54. Mora, J. and Olabisi, M. (2023). Economic development and export diversification: The role of trade costs. International Economics, 173, 102-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.inteco.2022.11.002
55. Nguyen, C. P. and Schinckus, C. (2023). How do countries deal with global uncertainty? Domestic ability to absorb shock through the lens of the economic complexity and export diversification. Quality & Quantity, 57(3), 2591-2618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-022-01478-7
56. Pananond, P. and Zeithaml, C. P. (1998). The international expansion process of MNEs from developing countries: A case study of Thailand’s CP Group. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 15(2), 163-184. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1015485413835
57. Rehman, F. U. and Sohag, K. (2023). Does transport infrastructure spur export diversification and sophistication in the G-20 economies? An application of CS-ARDL. Applied Economics Letters, 30(14), 1861-1865. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2022.2083554
58. Saboori, B., Zaibet, L. and Boughanmi, H. (2022). Export diversification, energy consumption, economic growth and environmental degradation: evidence from Oman. International Journal of Ambient Energy, 43(1), 8486-8504. https://doi.org/10.1080/01430750.2022.2091026
59. Saleem, R., Nasreen, S. and Azam, S. (2022). Role of financial inclusion and export diversification in determining green growth: evidence from SAARC economies. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 29(40), 60327-60340. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20096-2
60. Sarin, V., Mahapatra, S. K. and Sood, N. (2022). Export diversification and economic growth: A review and future research agenda. Journal of Public Affairs, 22(3), e2524. https://doi.org/10.1002/pa.2524
61. Shinkle, G. A. and Kriauciunas, A. P. (2010). Institutions, size and age in transition economies: Implications for export growth. Journal of International Business Studies, 41(2), 267-286. https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2009.9
62. Tallman, S. and Li, J. (1996). Effects of international diversity and product diversity on the performance of multinational firms. Academy of Management Journal, 39(1), 179-196. https://doi.org/10.5465/256635
63. Tesfom, G. and Lutz, C. (2006). A classification of export marketing problems of small and medium sized manufacturing firms in developing countries. International Journal of Emerging Markets, 1(3), 262-281. https://doi.org/10.1108/17468800610674480
64. Tesfom, G., Lutz, C. and Ghauri, P. (2004). Comparing export marketing channels: developed versus developing countries. International Marketing Review, 21(4/5), 409-422. https://doi.org/10.1108/02651330410547117
65. Türkcan, K. ve Pişkin, E. (2016). Ticaret anlaşmalarının Türkiye’nin ihracat dinamiğine etkisi: Yaygın ve yoğun ticaret. Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 27(99), 17-55. 10.5455/ey.35921
66. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK). (2022). Dış ticaret istatistikleri. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Kategori/GetKategori?p=dis-ticaret-104vedil=1 adresinden 10.11.2022 tarihinde erişilmiştir.
67. Vahlne, J. E. and Johanson, J. (2017). From internationalization to evolution: The Uppsala model at 40 years. Journal of International Business Studies, 48(9), 1087-1102. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41267-017-0107-7
68. Wang, T. and Libaers, D. (2016). Nonmimetic knowledge and innovation performance: Empirical evidence from developing countries. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 33(5), 570-588. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpim.12306
69. Wright, M., Filatotchev, I., Buck, T. and Bishop, K. (2002). Foreign partners in the former Soviet Union. Journal of World Business, 37(3), 165-179. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1090-9516(02)00075-5
70. Wright, M., Filatotchev, I., Hoskisson, R. E. and Peng, M. W. (2005). Strategy research in emerging economies: Challenging the conventional wisdom. Journal of Management Studies, 42(1), 1-33. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2005.00487.x
71. Xu, D. and Meyer, K. E. (2013). Linking theory and context: ‘Strategy research in emerging economies’ after Wright et al. (2005). Journal of Management Studies, 50(7), 1322-1346. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6486.2012.01051.x
72. Yaşar, E. ve Akalın, G. (2021). İhracat ürün çeşitlendirmesi ihracat performansını etkilemekte midir: Türkiye Örneği. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 20(2), 493-505. https://doi.org/10.21547/jss.882615
73. Young, M. N., Tsai, T., Wang, X., Liu, S. and Ahlstrom, D. (2014). Strategy in emerging economies and the theory of the firm. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 31(2), 331-354. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10490-014-9373-0
74. Zarach, Z. H. and Parteka, A. (2023). Export diversification and dependence on natural resources. Economic Modelling, 126, 106436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econmod.2023.106436
75. Zhang, L. X., Lai, M. T., Chang, T., Ranjbar, O. and Saboori, B. (2023). Measuring the export diversification of creative products’ basket and identifying its drivers: cross-country evidence. Applied Economics Letters, 1-5. https://doi.org/10.1080/13504851.2023.2219883
76. Zhao, S., Liu, X., Andersson, U. and Shenkar, O. (2022). Knowledge management of emerging economy multinationals. Journal of World Business, 57(1), 101255, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jwb.2021.101255