Askeri Rejimler Altında Gana’nın Dış Politikası, 1966-1993: Tarihsel Bir İnceleme

Year 2022, , 40 - 68, 10.05.2023

Abdallah Imam Haruna

https://doi.org/10.33722/afes.1146797

Cited By: 1

Abstract

Bu makale, 1966’dan 1993’e kadar Gana’daki askeri rejimlerin dış politika hedeflerini incele- mektedir. Altmışların ortaları ve doksanların başlarında, Afrika ve Latin Amerika’nın en çok askeri darbeye sahip kıta olarak ün kazanmak için birbirlerine meydan okudukları görüldü. Frankofon Afrika’daki askeri karışıklıkların çoğu herhangi bir ciddi uzman analizine zar zor yol açabilse de, Gana ve Nijerya’daki isyanlar birçok askeri uzmana Afrika siyasetinin mil- itarizasyonuna farklı bir boyut kazandırmıştı. 65 yaşında bir egemen devlet olarak Gana, 1966–1969, 1972–1979, 1979 ve 1981–1993 olmak üzere dört askeri rejime tanık oldu. Bu askeri devralma politikaları, her zaman ekonomik kötü yönetim ve gücün idari olarak kötüye kullanılmasıyla suçlandı. Gerçekten de, Gana’nın ekonomisi, 1957’deki bağımsızlığından bu yana, istikrarlı ekonomik büyüme söz konusu olduğunda birkaç aksilik yaşadı. Ülke, küresel Covid-19 salgınının ortasında 6 Mart 2022’de 65. bağımsızlık gününü kutlarken, bu çalışma, son altmış yıldaki askeri rejimlerin dış politikasına odaklanarak, ülkenin bağımsızlıktan bu yana siyasi adımlarının izini sürmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Makale, tıpkı askeri subayların yönet- mek için siyasi meşruiyetten yoksun olmaları gibi, başarılı dış politika kararları almak için doğru aktörler olmadıklarını kanıtlamayı amaçlamaktadır.

Keywords

Gana, Batı Afrika, darbeler, askeri kural, askeri rejim, dış politika

Ghana’s Foreign Policy Under Military Regimes, 1966-1993: An Historical Review

Abstract

This paper probes the foreign policy objectives of military regimes in Ghana from 1966 to 1993. The mid-sixties and early-nineties saw Africa and Latin America challenging each other for an accolade of notoriety as the continent with the most military coup d'états. Though most of the military disturbances in Francophone Africa could barely provoke any serious expert analysis, the revolts in Ghana and Nigeria had given many military pundits a different dimension of the militarization of African politics. As a 65-year-old sovereign state, Ghana has witnessed four military regimes: 1966–1969, 1972–1979, 1979, and 1981–1993. These politics of military takeovers were always blamed on economic mismanagement and administrative abuse of power. Indeed, Ghana’s economy since independence in 1957 has suffered several setbacks as far as steady economic growth is concerned. As the country celebrated its 65th independence day on 6 March 2022, amidst the global Covid-19 pandemic, this study seeks to retrace the political steps of the country since independence; focusing on the foreign policy of the military regimes within the last six decades. The paper intends to prove that just as military officers lack political legitimacy to govern, they are hardly the right actors to make successful foreign policy decisions.

Keywords

Ghana, West Africa, Coup D'etats, Military Rule, Military Regime, Foreign Policy

References

• Acemoglu, D. and Robinson, J. A. (2006). The Economic Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge Univ. Press
• Adejumobi, S. (1996). The Structural Adjustment Programme and Democratic Transition in Africa. Verfassung Und Recht in Übersee / Law and Politics in Africa, Asia and Latin America 29(4): 416-433. Afrifa, A. A. (1967). The Ghana Coup: 24 February 1966. London: Frank Cass, p. 133.
• Aguero, F. (1998). Legacies of Transitions: Institutionalization, the Military, and Democracy in South America. Mershon International Studies Review 42(2): 383–404.
• Aluko, O. (1981). Essays in Nigerian Foreign Policy. London: Allen and Unwin, pp. 130-131. Aluko, O. (1975). After Nkrumah: Continuity and Change in Ghana’s Foreign Policy. Issue: A Journal of Opinion 5(1): 55–62.
• Anber, P. (1967). Modernisation and Political Disintegration: Nigeria and the Ibos. The Journal of Modern African Studies 5(2): 163–79.
• Anene, J. N. (2000). Military Elites and Democratization: Ghana and Nigeria. Journal of Political & Military Sociology 28(2): 230–45.
• Anene, J. N. (1997). Military Administrative Behavior and Democratization: Civilian Cabinet Appointments in Military Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Public Policy 17(1): 63–80.
• Ankrah, J. A. (1966). Broadcast to the nations. Thursday, 24 February 1966 (Mimeographed, Balme Library, University of Ghana, Legon.
• Ankrah, J. A. (1966). “Press Conference.” Thursday, 1 March 1966. Accra: Ministry of Information 1966. Apter, D. E. (1972). Ghana in Transition: A Retrospective View. In Ghana in Transition, Princeton University Press, pp. 362–414.
• Arceneaux, C. (2001). Military Regimes and Transition Control in the Southern Cone and Brazil: Implications for Democratization in Latin America. Journal of Political and Military Sociology 29(2): 259–74.
• Asante, K. B. (1997). Foreign policy making in Ghana: options for the 21st century. Accra: Friedrich Ebert Foundation, Ghana Office. Atomic Heritage Foundation. (August 24, 2018). Proxy Wars During the Cold War: Africa. Cold War History.
• Barbara, Okeke E. 1982. 4 June: A Revolution Betrayed. Enugu: Ikengo Publishers. Berger, M. T. (2003). Decolonisation, Modernisation and Nation-Building: Political Development Theory and the Appeal of Communism in Southeast Asia, 1945-1975. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies 34(3): 421–48.
• Bennett, V. P. (1975). Epilogue: Malcontents in Uniform-The 1972 Coup D’Etat. Politicians and Soldiers in Ghana, pp. 307-308.
• Bennett, V. P. (1975). Soviet bloc-Ghanaian Relations since the Downfall of Nkrumah. In Warren Weinstein (ed.) Chinese and Soviet Aid to Africa. London Praeger, pp. 785-133.
• Bienen, H. (1980). African Militaries as Foreign Policy Actors. International Security 5(2): 168-186. Bienen, H. (1978). Military Rule and Political Process: Nigerian Examples. Comparative Politics 10(2): 205-225.
• Bienen, H. (1975). Transition from Military Rule: The Case of Western State Nigeria. Armed Forces & Society 1(3): 328-343.
• Bindra, S. S. (2019). Analysing Foreign Policy: A Theoretical Perspective. World Affairs: The Journal of International Issues 23(3): 26–43.
• Bluwey, G. K. (2002). Foreign Policy and Decision-Making Process in Ghana: Issues, Ground Rules and Actors in LECIA, Ghana’s Foreign Policy Option, Conference Proceedings, Legon, (11): 43-54.
• Bluwey, G. K. (1998). State Organizations in the Transition to Constitutional Democracy. In Ninsin, K. A. (ed.), Ghana: Transition to Democracy. Accra: Freedom Publications, pp. 105-111.
• Bluwey, G. K. (n.d.). The Foreign Policies of the Succession of Governments from 1996 to 2000. Unpublished Manuscript.
• Boafo-Arthur, K. (1999). Ghana: Structural Adjustment, Democratization, and the Politics of Continuity. African Studies Review 42(2): 41-72.
• Bretton, H. L. (1966). The Rise and Fall of Nkrumah: A Study of Personal Rule in Africa. London: Pall Mall Press. Brotz, H. and Everett, W. (1946). Characteristics of Military Society. American Journal of Sociology 51(5): 371–75.
• Byrd, D. and Komanduri, M. S. (2013). Foreign Policy Accomplishments in Obama Era. Race, Gender & Class 20(3/4): 147–65. Chazan, N. (1982). Ethnicity and Politics in Ghana. Political Science Quarterly 97(3): 461–85.
• Cheibub, J. A., Gandhi, J. and Vreeland, J. R. (2010). Democracy and dictatorship data Set. Available at: https://netfiles.uiuc.edu/cheibub/www/DDpage.html.
• Claude, W. E. (1978). Long term consequences of military rule: Breakdown and extrication. Journal of Strategic Studies 1(2): 139-153.
• Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. (2007). Military Spending and the Risks of Coups d’Etats. Centre for the Study of African Economies, Department of Economics, Oxford University.
• Collier, P. and Hoeffler, A. (2005). Coup traps: why does Africa have so many coups d'état? Centre for the Study of African Economies, Department of Economics, Oxford University.
• Cowan, G. L. (1966). The Military and African Politics. International Journal 21(3): 289- 297. Craig, J. J. and Kposowa, A. J. (1990). Explaining Military Coups D’État: Black Africa, 1957-1984. American Sociological Review 55(6): 861–75.
• Daily Graphic, 12 November 1976, p. 1 Daily Graphic and Ghanaian Times, issues 2 and 3, January 1982. Daily Times (of Nigeria), Issues of 15, 16, and 17 January 1972.
• Daron, A., Davide, T. and Andrea, V. (2010). A Theory of Military Dictatorships. American Economic Journal: Macroeconomics 2(1): 1–42.
• Davidonis, A. C. (1944). Some Problems of Military Government. The American Political Science Review 38(3): 460-474.
• Decalo, S. (1973). Military Coups and Military Regimes in Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies 11(1): 105–27.
• DeRouen, K. and Uk, H. (2001). Modernization and the Military in Latin America. British Journal of Political Science 31(3): 475–96.
• Dix, R. H. (1994). Military Coups and Military Rule in Latin America. Armed Forces & Society 20(3): 439–56.
• Dommen, E. and Alfred, M. (1988). The Military Burden in Developing Countries. The Journal of Modern African Studies 26(3): 377–401.
• Eldem, T. (2020). Military Coups and Military Disengagement. In Farazmand, Ali. (ed.) Global Encyclopedia of Public Administration, Public Policy, and Governance. Springer, Cham.
• Ensalaco, M. (1995). Military Prerogatives and the Stalemate of Chilean Civil-Military Relations. Armed Forces & Society 21(2): 255–70.
• Eyadat, Zaid and Mohammad, M. (2010). Culture and Foreign Policy: American Foreign Policy Post 9/11. Il Politico 75, 2(224): 163–77.
• Falode, A. (2019). The Military and Nation-Building in Nigeria: The General Ibrahim Babangida Regime, 1985-1993. International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences (85): 37-48.
• Feit, E. (1968). Military Coups and Political Development: Some Lessons from Ghana and Nigeria. World Politics 20(2): 179–93.
• Feitlowitz, M. (2001). ‘We Know Nothing. It Isn’t Taught’: Secret Histories of Argentina’s Dirty War. Agni, (54): 225–333.
• Fjelde, H. (2010). Generals, dictators, and kings. Conflict, Management, Peace Sci. 27(3):195–218.
• Frantz, E. and Ezrow, N. (2011). The Politics of Dictatorship: Institutions and Outcomes in Authoritarian Regimes. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
• Gandhi, J. (2015). Elections and Political Regimes. Government and Opposition 50(3): 446–68.
• Gebe, B. Y. (2008). Ghana's Foreign Policy at Independence and Implications for the 1966 Coup D'itat. The Journal of Pan African Studies 2(3): 160-186.
• Geddes, B., Wright, J. G. and Frantz, E. (2014). Autocratic breakdown and regime transitions: a new data set. Perspect. Polit. 12.
• Gershoni, Y. (1996). The Changing Pattern of Military Takeovers in Sub-Saharan Africa. Armed Forces & Society 23(2): 235–48. Ghana, Fourth Year in Office of Colonel Ignatius Kutu Acheampong (Accra, 1976), p. 268;
• Gomez, F. J. (2001). Military Rule in Argentina, 1976-1983: Suppressing the Peronists. Unpublished MA Dissertation, the University of Texas at Austin.
• Grare, F. (2002). Foreign Policy Options. Economic and Political Weekly 37(44/45): 4568–71.
• Grilli, M. (2019). A Historiographical Overview of Nkrumah’s Ideology and Foreign Policy. Southern Journal for Contemporary History 44(2): 29-54.
• Gyimah-Boadi, E. and Rothchild, D. (1982). Rawlings, Populism, and the Civil Liberties Tradition in Ghana. Issue: A Journal of Opinion 12(3/4): 64-69.
• Hadenius, A. and Teorell, J. (2007). Pathways from Authoritarianism. Journal of Democracy 18(1):143–57.
• Handley, A., and Greg, M. (2001). Civil-Military Relations in Ghana: The Prognosis. From Military Coups to Multiparty Elections: The Ghanaian Military-Civil Transition. Clingendael Institute.
• Harvey, W. B. (1966). Post-Nkrumah Ghana: The Legal Profile of a Coup. Articles by Maurer Faculty. Paper 1187.
• Hill, K. Q. (1979). Military Role vs. Military Rule: Allocations to Military Activities. Comparative Politics 11(3): 371-377.
• Honig, L. (2016). Immigrant Political Economies and Exclusionary Policy in Africa. Comparative Politics 48(4): 517–37.
• Inglessis, A. and Adelman, J. I. (2011). Argentina and Greece: Military Regimes Established and Populism Declared. Princeton University Senior Theses.
• Jeffries, R. (1982). Rawlings and the Political Economy of Underdevelopment in Ghana, African Affairs 81(324): 307-17.
• Jehenson, M. Y. (1999). Staging Cultural Violence: Griselda Gambaro and Argentina’s ‘Dirty War.’ Mosaic: An Interdisciplinary Critical Journal 32(1): 85–104.
• John, A. N. (1997). Military Administrative Behavior and Democratization: Civilian Cabinet Appointments in Military Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa. Journal of Public Policy 17(1): 63–80.
• Kilson, M. L. (1963). Authoritarian and Single-Party Tendencies in African Politics. World Politics 15(2): 262–94.
• Kissinger, H. A. (1966). Domestic Structure and Foreign Policy. Daedalus 95(2): 503–29.
• Klinghoffer, A. J. (1973). Modernisation and Political Development in Africa. The Journal of Modern African Studies 11(1): 1–19.
• Kobo, O. (2010). ‘We Are Citizens Too’: The Politics of Citizenship in Independent Ghana. The Journal of Modern African Studies 48(1): 67–94.
• Kposowa, A. J. and Craig, J. J. (1993). The Structural Sources of Military Coups in Postcolonial Africa, 1957-1984. American Journal of Sociology 99(1): 126–63.
• Kraus, J. (1991). The Struggle over Structural Adjustment in Ghana. Africa Today 38(4): 19–37.
• Kraxberger, B. (2004). The Geography of Regime Survival: Abacha’s Nigeria. African Affairs 103(412): 413–30.
• Lampton, D. M. (2014). China’s Foreign Policy. Great Decisions, 73–84.
• Loveman, B. (1991). Mision Cumplida? Civil Military Relations and the Chilean Political Transition. Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs 33(3): 35–74.
• Luckham, R. (1994). The Military, Militarization and Democratization in Africa: A Survey of Literature and Issues. African Studies Review 37(2): 13–75.
• Maniruzzaman, T. (1992). Arms Transfers, Military Coups, and Military Rule in Developing States. The Journal of Conflict Resolution 36(4): 733–55.
• McGowan, P. J. (2003). African Military Coups d’état, 1956-2001: Frequency, Trends and Distribution. The Journal of Modern African Studies 41(3): 339–70.
• Minion, M. K. C. (2004). Political Parties in Ghana through Four Republics: A Path to Democratic Consolidation. Comparative Politics 36(4): 421–42.
• Morrison, D. G., and Stevenson. H. M. (1974). Social Complexity, Economic Development and Military Coups d’Êtat; Convergence and Divergence of Empirical Tests of Theory in Latin America, Asia and Africa. Journal of Peace Research 11(4): 345– 47.
• Nanjira, D. D. (2010). African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century. ABC-Clio, Vol. 2.
• Okeke, M. G. S. (2018). Theories of Military in African Politics. In Oloruntoba, Samuel O and Falola, Toyin (eds.) The Palgrave Handbook of African Politics, Governance and Development. Palgrave Macmillan, New York.
• Olaosebikan, J. A. and Ajayi, A. T. (2014). Expulsion of Nigerian Immigrant Community from Ghana in 1969: Causes and Impact. Developing Country Studies 4(10): 176-186.
• Omo-bare, I. (1990). Military and Civilian Regimes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Comparative Analysis of Public Policy Outputs and Outcomes. MA Dissertation, Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College.
• Oquaye, M. (1980). Politics in Ghana, 1972-1979. Christiansburg, Accra: Tornado Publications.
• Osiel, M. J. (2001). Constructing Subversion in Argentina’s Dirty War. Representations 75(1): 119–58.
• Owusu, M. (2016). Rebellion, Revolution, and Tradition: Reinterpreting Coups in Ghana. In Kwasi, Konadu and Clifford, Campbell C (eds.) The Ghana Reader: History, Culture, Politics. Duke University Press. Pp. 329–333.
• Owusu, M. (1989). Rebellion, Revolution, and Tradition: Reinterpreting Coups in Ghana. Comparative Studies in Society and History 31(2): 372-397.
• Peil, M. (1971). The Expulsion of West African Aliens. The Journal of Modern African Studies 9(2): 205-229. Perlmutter, A. (1980). The Comparative Analysis of Military Regimes: Formations, Aspirations, and Achievements. World Politics 33(1): 96-120.
• Rothchild, D. and Gyimah-Boadi, E. (1981). Ghana's Return to Civilian Rule. Africa Today 28(1): 3-16.
• Rothchild, D. (1980). “Military Regime Performance: An Appraisal of the Ghana Experience, 1972-78.” Comparative Politics 12(4): 459–79.
• Rowe, E. T. (1974). Aid and Coups d’Etat: Aspects of the Impact of American Military Assistance Programs in the Less Developed Countries. International Studies Quarterly 18(2): 239–55.
• Rwengabo, S. (2013). Regime Stability in Post-1986 Uganda: Counting the Benefits of Coup-Proofing. Armed Forces & Society 39(3): 531–59.
• Sackeyfio-Lenoch, N. (2016). Decolonization, Development, and Nation Building in Ghana-Asia Relations, 1957-1966. The International Journal of African Historical Studies 49(2): 235–53.
• Said, A. (2012). The Paradox of Transition to "Democracy" under Military Rule. Social Research 79(2): 397-434.
• Shillington, K. (1992). Ghana and the Rawlings factor. London: Macmillan.
• Sigmund, P. E. (1993). Approaches to the Study of the Military in Latin America. Comparative Politics 26(1): 111-122.
• Smith, B. (2005). Life of the Party: the Origins of Regime Breakdown and Persistence under Single-Party Rule. World Politics 57(3):421–51.
• St John, R. B. (1983). The Ideology of Muammar al-Qadhdhafi: Theory and Practice. International Journal of Middle East Studies 15(4): 471-490.
• Tieku, T. K. and Odoom, I. (2020). “Re-orienting Ghana's Foreign Policy Crowd.” In Ayee, Joseph R. A. and Ohemeng, Frank L. K. (eds.) The Public Policy Making Process in Ghana: How Politicians and Civil Servants Deal with Public Problems Account: EBSCO Publishing: University OF Alberta Libraries. Chapter Twelve, pp. 323 – 345.
• Wahman, M., Teorell, J. and Hadenius A. (2013). Authoritarian regime types revisited: updated data in comparative perspective. Contemporary. Politics 19(1):19–34.
• Waltz, K. (2001). Man, the State, and War: A Theoretical Analysis. New York: Columbia University Press. Washington, D. C. 1940. Rules of Land Warfare 2(6), FM 27-10.
• Welch, C. E. (1962). The African Military and Political Development. In Henry, Bienen (ed.) The Role of the Military in Underdeveloped Countries. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
• Williams, L. and Masters, D. (2011). Assessing Military Intervention and Democratization: Supportive Versus Oppositional Military Interventions. Democracy and Security 7(1): 18-37.
• Wilson, T. (2016). Working Under Military Authoritarian Rule. In Eyewitness to Early Reform in Myanmar. ANU Press. pp. 33-56.
• Wright, J. G. and Escriba-Folch, A. (2012). Authoritarian Institutions and Regime Survival: Transitions to Democracy and Subsequent Autocracy. British Journal of Political Science 42(2):283–309.
• Yeboah, Y. F. (1986). The Crisis of International Migration in an Integrating West Africa: A Case Study of Nigeria and Ghana. Africa Development/Afrique Et Développement 11(4): 217-256.
• Zeff, E. E. (1981). New Directions in Understanding Military and Civilian Regimes in Ghana. African Studies Review 24(1): 49-72.