The Mediating Role of Loneliness in the Relation Between Preference for Solitude, Social Competence, Self-Esteem and Depression in Emerging Adults

Year 2023, , 29 - 48, 31.03.2023

Ahmet Çağlar Özdoğan Ragıp Ümit Yalçın , Namık Kemal Haspolat Oğuzhan Çelik

https://doi.org/10.38151/akef.2023.43

Abstract

This study aims at testing the relation between emerging adults’ preference for solitude, social competence, self-esteem on one side and depression on the other side with the mediating role of loneliness. The study group is composed of students that were studying at various faculties at state universities in Turkey in 2019-2020 Academic Year and determined by the easily convenience sampling. 508 students, 279 of whom were female and 229 of whom were male, participated in the study. Data collections tools used in the study are Beck Depression Scale, UCLA Loneliness Scale Short Form, Preference for Solitude Scale, Two-Dimensional Self-Esteem Scale and Perceived Social Competence Scale. The findings of the current study indicate that there is a positive association between depression and loneliness, whereas a negative relationship between loneliness and a tendency for solitude as well as between self-esteem and social competence. Furthermore, the current findings show that loneliness predicts the relation between emerging adults’ preference for solitude, social competence, self-esteem and depression at a statistically significant level.

Keywords

Depression, Loneliness, Solitide, Social Competence, Self Esteem

References

• Anderson-Butcher, D., Iachini, A. L., & Amorose, A. J. (2008). Initial reliability and validity of the Perceived Social Competence Scale. Research on Social Work Practice, 18(1), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1049731507304364
• Arnett, J. J. (2004). Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties. Oxford University Press.
• Arnett, J. J. (2014). Presidential Address: The emergence of emerging adulthood: A personal history. Emerging Adulthood, 2(3), 155–162. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167696814541096
• Averill, J. R., & Sundararajan, L. (2014). Experiences of solitude: Issues of assessment, theory, and culture. In R. J. Coplan & J. C. Bowker (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (p. 90–108). Wiley Blackwell.
• Barreto, M., Victor, C., Hammond, C., Eccles, A., Richins, M. T., & Qualter, P. (2021). Loneliness around the world: Age, gender, and cultural differences in loneliness. Personality and Individual Differences, 169, 110066. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2020.110066
• Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1961.01710120031004
• Birmaher, B., Ryan, N. D., Williamson, D. E., Brent, D. A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R. E., ... & Nelson, B. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: a review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 35(11), 1427-1439. doi. 10.1097/00004583-199611000-0001
• Burger, J. M. (1995). Individual differences in preference for solitude. Journal of Research in Personality, 29(1), 85–108. https://doi.org/10.1006/jrpe.1995.1005
• Cacioppo, S., Grippo, A. J., London, S., Goossens, L., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2015). Loneliness: Clinical import and interventions. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 238-249. doi: 10.1177/1745691615570616
• Chang, E. C., Muyan, M., & Hirsch, J. K. (2015). Loneliness, positive life events, and psychological maladjustment: When good things happen, even lonely people feel better! Personality and Individual Differences, 86, 150–155. doi.10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.016
• Cheng, H., & Furnham, A. (2003). Attributional style and self-esteem as predictors of psychological well being. Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 16(2), 121-130. doi:10.1080/0951507031000151516
• Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. New York: Harper Collins.
• Corsano, P., Majorano, M., & Champretavy, L. (2006). Psychological well-being in adolescence: The contribution of interpersonal relations and experience of being alone. Adolescence, 41(162), 341–353.
• Dahlberg, L., McKee, K. J., Frank, A., & Naseer, M. (2021). A systematic review of longitudinal risk factors for loneliness in older adults. Aging & Mental Health, 1-25. doi:10.1080/13607863.2021.1876638
• Danneel, S., Maes, M., Bijttebier, P., Rotsaert, M., Delhaye, M., Berenbaum, T., & Goossens, L. (2018). Loneliness and attitudes toward aloneness in Belgian adolescents: Measurement invariance across language, age, and gender groups. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 40(4), 678-690. doi.10.1007/s10862-018-9671-9
• Doğan, T. (2011). İki boyutlu benlik saygısı: Kendini Sevme/Özyeterlik Ölçeği’nin Türkçe Uyarlaması, Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması. Eğitim ve Bilim, [S.l.], v. 36, n. 162, ISSN 1300-1337. Retrieved from: http://egitimvebilim.ted.org.tr/index.php/EB/article/view/625/315
• Doğan, T., Çötok, N. A. ve Tekin, E. G. (2011). Reliability and validity of the Turkish version of the UCLA Loneliness Scale (ULS-8) among university students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 2058-2062. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2011.04.053
• Domagała-Krecioch, A. & Majerek, B. (2013). The issue of loneliness in the period of emerging adulthood. European Scientific Journal, 2 (534-541). Retrieved from: https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/236408634.pdf
• Elmer, T., Geschwind, N., Peeters, F., Wichers, M., & Bringmann, L. (2020). Getting stuck in social isolation: Solitude inertia and depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 129(7), 713-723. doi. 10.1037/abn0000588
• Erpay, T. ve Atik, G. (2019). Tek Başına Olmayı Tercih Etme Ölçeği: Türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Kastamonu Education Journal, 27(6), 2493-2500. doi:10.24106/kefdergi.3371
• Erzen, E., & Çikrikci, Ö. (2018). The effect of loneliness on depression: A meta-analysis. International Journal of Social Psychiatry, 64(5), 427-435. doi. 10.1177/0020764018776349
• Eysenck, H.J. & Wilson, G. (1998). Kişiliğinizi tanıyın (3. Basım). E. Erduran (Çev). İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi.
• Fontaine, R. G., Yang, C., Burks, V. S., Dodge, K. A., Price, J. M., Pettit, G. S., & Bates, J. E. (2009). Loneliness as a partial mediator of the relation between low social preference in childhood and anxious/depressed symptoms in adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 21(2), 479–491. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579409000261
• Fraenkel, J.R., Wallen, N.E., & Hyun, H.H. (2012). How to design and evaluate research in education (Eight Edition). New York: McGraw-Hill.
• Gable, S. L., & Shean, G. D. (2000). Perceived social competence and depression. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 17(1), 139-150.doi:10.1177/0265407500171007
• Galanaki, E. (2004). Are children able to distinguish among the concepts of aloneness, loneliness, and solitude? International Journal of Behavioral Development, 28(5), 435–443. https://doi.org/10.1080/01650250444000153
• Goossens, L. (2013). Affinity for aloneness in adolescence and preference forsolitude in childhood: Linking two research traditions. In R. J. Coplan & J. C.Bowker (Eds.), The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone (pp. 150-166). NewYork, NY: Wiley-Blackwell
• Hair, J. F., Anderson R. E., Tahtam, R. L., & Black, W. C. (1998). Multivariate data analysis. New Jersey: Pearson Education.
• Hawkley, L. C., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2010). Loneliness matters: A theoretical and empirical review of consequences and mechanisms. Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 40(2), 218-227.doi:10.1007/s12160-010-9210-8
• Hawley, P. H., Little, T. D., & Pasupathi, M. (2002). Winning friends and influencing peers: Strategies of peer influence in late childhood. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 26(5), 466-474. doi:10.1080/01650250143000427
• Hisli, N. (1989). Beck Depresyon Envanterinin üniversite öğrencileri için geçerliği, güvenirliği. Psikoloji Dergisi, 7(23), 3-13. Retrieved from: https://toad.halileksi.net/sites/default/files/pdf/beck-depresyon-envanteri-toad.pdf
• Holt-Lunstad, J., Smith, T. B., Baker, M., Harris, T., & Stephenson, D. (2015). Loneliness and social isolation as risk factors for mortality: A meta-analytic review. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 227-237. doi:10.1177/1745691614568352
• Holvast, F., Burger, H., de Waal, M. M., van Marwijk, H. W., Comijs, H. C., & Verhaak, P. F. (2015). Loneliness is associated with poor prognosis in late-life depression: Longitudinal analysis of the Netherlands study of depression in older persons. Journal of Affective Disorders, 185, 1–7. doi. 10.1016/j.jad.2015.06.036
• Ionna T. & Maria M.L. (1998) Differences in loneliness among low, moderate and high self-esteem young and older adults. World Federation of Occupational Therapists Bulletin, 37:1, 30-37, DOI: 10.1080/20566077.1998.11800243
• Iranmanesh, M., Foroughi, B., Nikbin, D., & Hyun, S. S. (2019). Shyness, self-esteem, and loneliness as causes of FA: The moderating effect of low self-control. Current Psychology, 1-12. doi.10.1007/s12144-019-00465-w
• Ishaq, G., Solomon, V., & Khan, O. (2017). Relationship between self-esteem and loneliness among university students living in hostels. International Journal of Research, 6(2), 21-27. doi. 10.5861/ijrsp.2017.1735
• Jeffrey, K., Abdallah, S., & Michaelson, J. (2017). The cost of loneliness to UK Employers. London, UK: New Economics Foundation.
• Jenkins, S. R., Goodness, K., & Buhrmester, D. (2002). Gender differences in early adolescents’ relationship qualities, self-efficacy, and depression symptoms. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 22(3), 277-309.Doi: 10.1177/02731602022003003
• Jones, W. H., Sansone, C., & Helm, B. (1983). Loneliness and interpersonal judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 437–441. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167283093014
• Jo Cox Commission (2017). Combating loneliness one conversation at a time: A call to action Jones, W. H., Sansone, C., & Helm, B. (1983). Loneliness and interpersonal judgments. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9(3), 437-441.doi:10.1177/0146167283093014
• Kline, R.B.(2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling. Guilford Press.
• Knafo, D. (2012). Alone together: Solitude and the creative encounter in art and psychoanalysis. Psychoanalytic Dialogues, 22(1), 54–71. doi:10.1080/10481885.2012.646605
• Korpela K., Staats H. (2014). “The restorative qualities of being alone with nature,” in The handbook of solitude: Psychological perspectives on social isolation, social withdrawal, and being alone, eds Coplan R., Bowker J. (West Sussex: John Wiley & Sons; ), 351–367.
• Ladd, G. W., & Ettekal, I. (2013). Peer-related loneliness across early to late adolescence: Normative trends, intra-individual trajectories, and links with depressive symptoms. Journal of Adolescence, 36(6), 1269-1282. Doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.05.004
• Larson, R. W. (1990). The solitary side of life: An examination of the time people spend alone from childhood to old age. Developmental Review, 10(2), 155–183. https://doi.org/10.1016/0273-2297(90)90008-R
• Lee, J. Y., Ko, D. W., & Lee, H. (2019). Loneliness, regulatory focus, inter-personal competence, and online game addiction. Internet Research. 29/2, 381-394. doi. 10.1108/IntR-01-2018-0020
• Lin, M. P., Wu, J. Y. W., You, J., Chang, K. M., Hu, W. H., & Xu, S. (2018). Association between online and offline social support and internet addiction in a representative sample of senior high school students in Taiwan: the mediating role of self-esteem. Computers in Human Behavior, 84, 1-7. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2018.02.007
• Long, C. R., Seburn, M., Averill, J. R., & More, T. A. (2003). Solitude experiences: Varieties, settings, and individual differences. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29(5), 578–583. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029005003
• Matthews, T., Danese, A., Wertz, J., Odgers, C. L., Ambler, A., Moffitt, T. E., & Arseneault, L. (2016). Social isolation, loneliness and depression in young adulthood: a behavioural genetic analysis. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 51(3), 339-348. doi. 10.1007/s00127-016-1178-7
• Moeller, R. W., & Seehuus, M. (2019). Loneliness as a mediator for college students’ social skills and experiences of depression and anxiety. Journal of Adolescence, 73, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.006
• Most, T., Ingber, S., & Heled-Ariam, E. (2012). Social competence, sense of loneliness, and speech intelligibility of young children with hearing loss in individual inclusion and group inclusion. Journal of Deaf Studies and Deaf Education, 17(2), 259-272. doi:10.1093/deafed/enr049
• Muris, P. (2002). Relationships between self-efficacy and symptoms of anxiety disorders and depression in a normal adolescent sample. Personality and Individual Differences, 32(2), 337-348. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00027-7
• Neziek, J. B. (2001). Causal relationships between perceived social skills and day-to-day social interaction: Extending the sociometer hypothesis. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 18(3), 386-403. doi:10.1177/0265407501183005
• Ouellet, R., & Joshi, P. (1986). Loneliness in relation to depression and self-esteem. Psychological Reports, 58(3), 821-822. doi:10.2466/pr0.1986.58.3.821
• Orth, U., & Robins, R. W. (2013). Understanding the link between low self-esteem and depression. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 22(6), 455-460. doi. 10.1177/0963721413492763
• Uba, I., Siti Nor, Y., Rumaya, J., & Mansor, A. T. (2012). Does self-esteem mediate the relationship between loneliness and depression among Malaysian teenagers? Pertanika Journal of Social Science & Humanities, 20(1), 179-188. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236136086_Does_Self- Esteem_Mediate_the_Relationship_between_Loneliness_and_Depression_among_Malaysian_Teenagers
• Parker, J. G., & Asher, S. R. (1993). Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction. Developmental Psychology, 29(4), 611. doi:10.1037/0012-1649.29.4.611
• Peplau, L. A., & Perlman, D. (1982). Perspective on loneliness. In L. A. Peplau & D. Perlman (Eds.), Loneliness: A sourcebook of current theory, research and therapy (pp. 1-18). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, & Computers, 36(4), 717-731. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.3758/BF03206553.pdf
• Preacher, K. J., & Hayes, A. F. (2008). Assessing mediation in communication research. London: The Sage
• Pituch, K. A., & Stevens, J. P. (2016). Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences: Analysis with SAS And IBM’s SPSS (6th Edition). New York: Taylor and Francis.
• Russell, D., Peplau, L. A., & Ferguson, M. L. (1978). Developing a measure of loneliness. Journal of Personality Assessment, 42(3), 290–294. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327752jpa4203_11
• Salmela-Aro, K., & Nurmi, J. E. (1996). Uncertainty and confidence in interpersonal projects: Consequences for social relationships and well-being. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 13(1), 109-122. doi:10.1177/0265407596131006
• Sarıçam, H., Akın, A., Akın, Ü., Çardak, M., (2013). Algılanan Sosyal Yetkinlik Ölçeğinin Türkçeye Uyarlanması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. International Journal of Social Science, 6( 3), 591-600.
• Tabachnick, B. G, Fidel, L. S. (2007). Using mulivariate statistics. MA: Allyn&Bacon, Inc.
• Tafarodi, R.W., & Swann, W.B. (2001). Two-dimensional self-esteem: Theory and measurement. Personality and Individual Differences, 31(5), 653–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(00)00169-0
• Toyoshima, A., & Sato, S. (2015). Examination of the relationship between preference for solitude and emotional well-being after controlling for the effect of loneliness. Shinrigaku Kenkyu: The Japanese Journal of Psychology, 86(2), 142-149. doi. 10.4992/jjpsy.86.13234
• Tzonichaki, L., & Kleftaras, G. (2002). Paraplegia from spinal cord injury: Self-esteem, loneliness, and life satisfaction. OTJR: Occupation, Participation and Health, 22(3), 96-103. doi:10.1177/153944920202200302
• Tzonichaki, I., & Malikiosi-Loizos, M. (1998). Differences in loneliness among low, moderate and high self-esteem young and older adults. World Federation of Occupational Therapists Bulletin, 37(1), 30-37. doi:10.1080/20566077.1998.11800243
• Qualter, P., Brown, S. L., Munn, P., & Rotenberg, K. J. (2010). Childhood loneliness as a predictor of adolescent depressive symptoms: an 8-year longitudinal study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 19(6), 493-501. doi: 10.1007/s00787-009-0059-y Qualter, P., Vanhalst, J., Harris, R., Van Roekel, E., Lodder, G., Bangee, M., ... & Verhagen, M. (2015). Loneliness across the life span. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 10(2), 250-264. doi:10.1177/1745691615568999
• Palgi, Y., Segel-Karpas, D., Mor, S. O., Hoffman, Y., Shrira, A., & Bodner, E. (2021). Positive Solitude Scale: Theoretical background, development and validation. Journal of Happiness Studies, 1-28. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00367-4
• Park, N. S., Jang, Y., Lee, B. S., Haley, W. E., & Chiriboga, D. A. (2013). The mediating role of loneliness in the relation between social engagement and depressive symptoms among older Korean Americans: do men and women differ?. The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 68(2), 193–201. https://doi.org/10.1093/geronb/gbs062
• Rockhill, C. M., Vander Stoep, A., McCauley, E., and Katon, W. J. (2009). Social competence and social support as mediators between comorbid depressive and conduct problems and functional outcomes in middle school children. Journal of Adolescence, 32, 535–553. doi: 10.1016/j.adolescence.2008.06.011
• Rotenberg, K. J., & Hymel, S. (Eds.). (1999). Loneliness in childhood and adolescence. Cambridge University Press.
• Salmela-Aro, K., & Nurmi, J.-E. (1996). Depressive symptoms and personal project appraisals: A cross-lagged longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 21(3), 373–381. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(96)00078-5
• Shi, X., Wang, J., & Zou, H. (2017). Family functioning and Internet addiction among Chinese adolescents: The mediating roles of self-esteem and loneliness. Computers in Human Behavior, 76, 201-210. doi. 10.1016/j.chb.2017.07.028
• Sowislo, J. F., & Orth, U. (2013). Does low self-esteem predict depression and anxiety? A meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 139(1), 213-240. doi. 10.1037/a0028931
• Wang, J. M., Rubin, K. H., Laursen, B., Booth-LaForce, C., & Rose-Krasnor, L. (2013). Preference-for-solitude and adjustment difficulties in early and late adolescence. Journal of Clinical Child And Adolescent Psychology: The Official Journal for The Society of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, American Psychological Association, Division 53, 42(6), 834–842. https://doi.org/10.1080/15374416.2013.794700
• Watson, J., & Nesdale, D. (2012). Rejection sensitivity, social withdrawal, and loneliness in young adults. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 42(8), 1984-2005. doi. 10.1111/j.1559-1816.2012.00927.x
• Weeks, D. G., Michela, J. L., Peplau, L. A., & Bragg, M. E. (1980). Relation between loneliness and depression: A structural equation analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 39(6), 1238. doi:10.1037/h0077709
• Weiss, R. S. (1973). Loneliness: The experience of emotional and social isolation. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
• Whitton, S. W., Larson, J. J., & Hauser, S. T. (2008). Depressive symptoms and bias in perceived social competence among young adults. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 64(7), 791-805. doi. 10.1002/jclp.20488
• Williams, K. L., & Galliher, R. V. (2006). Predicting depression and self–esteem from social connectedness, support, and competence. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 25(8), 855-874. doi:10.1521/jscp.2006.25.8.855
• Van Dulmen, M. H., & Goossens, L. (2013). Loneliness trajectories. Journal of Adolescence,36, 1247-1250. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2013.08.001
• Van Winkel, M., Wichers, M., Collip, D., Jacobs, N., Derom, C., Thiery, E., ... & Peeters, F. (2017). Unraveling the role of loneliness in depression: the relationship between daily life experience and behavior. Psychiatry, 80(2), 104-117. doi. 10.1080/00332747.2016.1256143
• Varghese, M. E., & Pistole, M. C. (2017). College student cyberbullying: Self‐esteem, depression, loneliness, and attachment. Journal of College Counseling, 20(1), 7-21. doi. 10.1002/jocc.12055
• Vanhalst, J., Soenens, B., Luyckx, K., Van Petegem, S., Weeks, M. S., & Asher, S. R. (2015). Why do the lonely stay lonely? Chronically lonely adolescents’ attributions and emotions in situations of social inclusion and exclusion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 109(5), 932–948. doi.10.1037/pspp0000051
• Yadegarfard, M., Ho, R., & Bahramabadian, F. (2013). Influences on loneliness, depression, sexual-risk behaviour and suicidal ideation among Thai transgender youth. Culture, Health & Sexuality, 15, 726–737. doi. 10.1080/13691058.2013.784362
• Yao, M. Z., & Zhong, Z. J. (2014). Loneliness, social contacts and Internet addiction: A cross-lagged panel study. Computers in Human Behavior, 30, 164-170. Doi:10.1016/j.chb.2013.08.007
• Zarnaghash, M., & Gholamrezaıe, S., & Sadeghi, M. (2018). The effect of Self efficacy, Self esteem, Spiritual well-being, Depression in regard to loneliness as a mediator on life satisfaction. Journal Of Psychologıcal Models And Methods, 9 (33), 87-106.
• Zhang, F., You, Z., Fan, C., Gao, C., Cohen, R., Hsueh, Y., & Zhou, Z. (2014). Friendship quality, social preference, proximity prestige, and self-perceived social competence: Interactive influences on children's loneliness. Journal of School Psychology, 52(5), 511-526. doi. 10.1016/j.jsp.2014.06.001
• Zhou, Y., & Liu, J. S. (2016). Preference-for-solitude and depression during middle childhood: Moderating effect of friendship. Chinese Journal of Clinical Psychology. 24(3), 491–494.
• Zigler, E., & Phillips, L. (1961). Social competence and outcome in psychiatric disorder. The Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 63(2), 264.doi: 10.1037/h0046232