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Bilimsel Araştırmaların Nükleer Silahlara Evrilmesi

Year 2025, Issue: 31, 179 - 198
https://doi.org/10.33404/anasay.1572113

Abstract

Reel politik uygulayan devletlerin bilimi, güç rekabeti ve kapitalist amaçlar doğrultusunda bir araç olarak kullanma eğiliminde olduğu yaygın olarak kabul edilmektedir. 1941 yılında gerçekleşen Pearl Harbor saldırısının ardından Amerika Birleşik Devletleri’nin nükleer silah geliştirme sürecine Manhattan Projesi ile giriş yapması, bu bağlamda etik sorunlar ve uygulama farklılıklarının araştırmaların yönünü değiştirme potansiyeline sahip olduğunu göstermektedir. Savaş döneminin zaruretleri, konvansiyonel rekabetin nükleer güç yarışına dönüşmesine yol açarken, bilim insanları nükleer silahlanma yarışını durdurmak veya kontrol altında tutmak amacıyla çeşitli çabalar içine girmiştir. Atom Bilimciler Bülteni ve Pugwash Konferansları gibi girişimlerin, nükleer tehlikeler ve olası riskleri topluma aktarma çabalarının yanı sıra, bilim insanlarının 'Nükleer Kış' terimi aracılığıyla nükleer silahlara karşı duyarlılık geliştirdikleri tespit edilmiştir. Bilimsel araştırmaların özgürlüğünün sağlanması, çalışmaların sürekliliği açısından kritik öneme sahiptir. Nükleer araştırmaların tarihi incelendiğinde, bilimsel çalışmaların politik eylemlere yön verme potansiyeline sahip olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Araştırma, tarihsel olayları takip ederek bilimsel araştırmaların nükleer silahların gelişimine nasıl evrildiğini incelemektedir. Bu bağlamda, bilim ve politikalar arasındaki etkileşim, çalışmanın temel tartışma noktalarından birini oluşturmaktadır. Çalışmanın amacı, bilimsel araştırmaların nükleer teknoloji üzerindeki gelişimini, nükleer fiziğin temellerini ve atom biliminin askeri stratejilere entegrasyonunu tarihsel bir perspektiften inceleyerek, bilimsel araştırmaların militarizasyonunu değerlendirmektir. Bu çalışma, bilimin askeri uygulamalara entegrasyonunda daha derinlemesine bir yaklaşım geliştirilmesini teşvik ederek, ulusal ve küresel güvenliğin korunmasına yönelik koordineli bir çaba oluşturmayı hedeflemektedir. NARA -AAD (National Archives), NSA (National Security Archives), US Department arşivleri ve literatürden elde edilen bilgiler ışığında yapılan çalışmada, kaos döneminde bilim dünyasının siyasetçiler ve askeriye ile faaliyeti detaylı araştırılmıştır.

References

  • Arşiv belgeleri:
  • AAD-NARA (National Archives), E.O. 11652: N/A-Pugwash Symposıum On Securıty And Cooperatıon In Europe
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: 076588- Presidential Nuclear Policy Statement
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: GDS- Return to Earth of Skylab.
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: NA 181236Z 107019 /12- Fourth Informal Meeting With Experts On New Mass Destruction Weapons
  • CİA (Central İnteligence Agency) Archives, Nİ İİA84-1006: The Soviet Approach to Nuclear Winter, Interagency Intelligence Assesment, NND 984036.
  • Clinton Presidental Library, OA/İD-43319; Doc İD-9507853; Foia Mr. Marker, Case Number: 2006-0460-F. FDR Presidental Library, Einstein, A. (1939). Einstein Letter.
  • http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/archives/pdfs/docsworldwar.pdf
  • Fermi at Columbia | Department of Physics. (n.d.). https://web.archive.org/web/20190621185402/https://physics.columbia.edu/home/fermi-columbia
  • İAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), İNİS-mf- 13106: X4920025: Disarmament, Comprehensive Study on Nuclear Weapons Summary of a United Nations Study, Department for Disarmament Affairs United Nations New York, October 1991, p.5-6.
  • Newsweek. (1947, Mart 10). Einstein, the man who started it all.
  • NSA (National Security Archives), RG 77, MED Records, H-B files, folder no. 76. E. Lapp, Leo Szilard et al., “A Petition to the President of the United States,” July 17, 1945.
  • NSA- L.D. Riabev, ed., Atomnyi Proekt SSSR (Moscow: izd MFTI, 2002), Volume 1, Part 2, 335-336
  • NSA- NARA, RG-60, Case File 146-7-23-25, box 1, file: Serial 6, July 1-August 13, 1942
  • NSA- Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Record Group 227 (hereinafter RG 227), Bush-Conant papers microfilm collection, Roll 1, Target 2, Folder 1, "S-1 Historical File, Section A (1940-1941)." US Department of Energy Archives, DOE-MA-0001-01/99, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, Department of Energy: A Summary History, 1977-1994.
  • US Department of State Archives, 386;413: Department Of State Memorandum For The Presıdent, Possible U.S.-Soviet Cooperative Space Projects, State Depatrtment, NLK-76-284, 6a, by MFO NARS, date:6.11.76
  • Araştırma eserleri:
  • Akay, G. G., & Nalçacı, E. (2019). Savaşın hizmetinde bilim: Manhattan Projesi. Madde, Diyalektik ve Toplum, 2(3), 208-218. https://bilimveaydinlanma.org/savasin-hizmetinde-bilim-manhattan-projesi/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024)
  • Allison, G. (2010). Yadernyy Besporyadok: Obozrevaya Atomnyye Ugrozy. Forin Affers (Foreign Affairs), 89(1), 74-85.
  • Aras, H. (2019). Soğuk Savaş Döneminden Günümüze Rusya'nın Nükleer Faaliyetleri ve Politikaları. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(2), 14-23. https://doi.org/10.33537/sobild.2019.10.2.2
  • Artemov, Y. T. (2014). Sovetskiy Atomnyy Proyekt V Sisteme Komandnoy Ekonomiki, Cahiers du monde russe, 55(3-4), 267-294.
  • Basdevant, J., & Rich, J., Spiro M. (2004). Fundamentals In Nuclear Physics. France: Springer.
  • Beggott, D. (2011). Taynaya istoriya atomnoy bomby. Eksmo.
  • Bekman I.N., (2005). Yadernaya Industriya, Kurs lektsiy, http://profbeckman.narod.ru/NI.htm (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Belous, M.N. & Burdayev, V.P. Gagin, A.A. Greshilov. (2009). Oruzhiye raketno-yadernogo udara. Moskva: Izdatel'stvo MGTU im. N.E. Baumana,
  • Bulut, S. (2024). Hidrojen bombası nedir. https://www.milliyet.com.tr/hidrojen-bombasi-nedir--molatik-13321/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Dunbar, B. Https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/60counting/NASA: 60 Years& Counting-Human Spaceflight. https://www. nasa.gov/wpcontent/ uploads/static/60counting/NASA.
  • https://www.nasa.gov/specials/60counting/spaceflight.html
  • Franceschini, G., & Schaper, A. (2006). Nuclear Weapons Research and Modernization Without Nuclear Testing. Frankfurt: Peace Research Institute
  • German Chain of Command in Western Europe. https://www.britannica.com/topic/German-Chain-of-Command-in-Western-Europe-June-1944-1673116 (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Gosling, F.G. (2010). The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/Manhattan_Project_2010.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Gönenç, G. (1983). Hep Aranızda Olacağım-Frederic Joliot-Cruie’nin Hayat Hikayesi. Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları.
  • Gül, M. (2021). Bilim ve İktidar İlişkisi: Manhattan Projesi Örneği. Kutadgubilig Felsefe-Bilim Araştırmaları, (43), 53-80.
  • Heilbron, J.L. (2003). Ernest Rutherford: And the Explosion of Atoms. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Hughes, J. (2002). The Manhattan Project: Big Science and The Atom Bomb. Cambridge, UK: Icon Books Ltd.
  • İncekara, R., & Şekercioğlu, S. (2020). Toryum ve Uranyum Zenginleştirme Programlarının Uluslararası Siyaset ve Çevreye Etkileri, Devlet Doğasının Değişimi: Güvenliğin Sınırları, 539-553.
  • https://tasam.org/Files/Icerik/File/%C4%B0GK2Kitap_(5)_pdf_dcb604ed-d681-44e6-87b9-98586cc0bc77.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Kai, B. (2005). American Prometheus: the triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internet Archive.https://archive.org/ details/americanpromethe00bird/ page/n11/mode/2up (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Khubert, M. Istoriya atomnoy bombi, https://readli.net/chitat-online/?b=260445 &pg=1 (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024)
  • Kissinger, A. H. (2016). Dünya Düzeni, (Çev: Sinem Sultan Gül), I. Baskı. İstanbul: Altan Ambalaj Matbaa AŞ.
  • Kovaleva, R. (2004). Ugolovnaya Otvetstvennost' Za Prestupleniy., Kazan: Svyazannyye S Oborotom Yadernykh Materialov I Radioaktivnykh Veshchestv.
  • Kragh, H. (2012). Rutherford, Radioactivity, and the Atomic Nucleus.
  • https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1202/1202.0954.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - Office of the Historian. (n.d.). https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Murray, L. R., & Holbert, E. K., (2015). The History of Nuclear Energy. Washington DC: U.S Department of Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology.
  • Norris, S. R., & Kristensen M. H. (2009). US Nuclear Warheads, 1945-2009. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 65 (4), https://thebulletin.org/2009/07/u-s-nuclear-warheads-1945-2009/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Paris, Abraham. (2005). Robert J. Oppenheimer. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/jrobertoppenheim00pais_0 (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Rai Goerler, & Johnston, H. L. (1991). Buckeyes and the Bomb. https://library.osu.edu/documents/university-archives/subject_ files/manhattan_ project. pdf (Erişim tarihi: 05.10.2024).
  • Robinson, P. (1998). Contribution of the Pugwash Movement to the İnternational Regime Against Chemical and Biological Weapons, Pugwash Meeting no.242, Geneva, Switzerland: The BWC Protocol Negotiation: Unresolved Issues. https://pugwash.org/1998/11/30/geneva-meeting-of-the-cbw-study-group/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024). Robock, A. (2010). Nuclear Winter, Clim Change, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (1), 418-427.
  • http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/WiresClimateChangeNW.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Rotblat, J. (2001). The Early Days Of Pugwash. Physics Today 54, 6(50), 2001, 50-55. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1387592
  • Rubinson, P. (2019). Pugwash Literature Review.https://www.urban.org/ sites/default/files/2019/06/27/pugwash_literature_review.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Science History İnstitute. Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann.
  • https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/otto-hahn-lise-meitner-and-fritz-strassmann (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Sclove, E. R. (1989). From Alchemy to Atomic War: Frederick Soddy's ‘Technology Assessment of Atomic Energy, 1900-1915. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 14 (2), 163-194. https://doi.org/10.1177/016224398901400
  • Smyth, De W. (1948). Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. Princeton, NJ: Princiton University Press.
  • Sokolski, D. H. (2012). The Next Arms Race. Carlisle: The Nonproliferation Policy Education Center Strategic Studies Institute Book.
  • Stine, D. D. & Congressional Research Service. (2009). The Manhattan Project, the Apollo Program, and Federal Energy Technology R&D Programs: A Comparative Analysis (Report No. RL34645). Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL34645.pdf
  • Wellerstein, A. (2013). How many people worked on the Manhattan Project? http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/11/01/many-people-worked-manhattan-project /(Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • 1995 Nobel Peace Prize- An Essay by Irwin Abrams. (n.d.). https://www.irwinabrams.com/books/excerpts/annual95.html (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).

EVOLUTION OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH INTO NUCLEAR WEAPONS

Year 2025, Issue: 31, 179 - 198
https://doi.org/10.33404/anasay.1572113

Abstract

It is widely acknowledged that states employing realpolitik often utilize science as an instrument for power competition and capitalist objectives. The United States' entry into the nuclear weapons development process through the Manhattan Project following the Pearl Harbor attack in 1941 exemplifies how ethical concerns and practical discrepancies can influence the trajectory of research in this domain. While wartime exigencies transformed conventional competition into a nuclear arms race, numerous scientists endeavored to halt or regulate this escalation. Initiatives such as the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists and the Pugwash Conferences have sought to communicate the dangers and potential risks of nuclear weapons to the public, and the concept of 'Nuclear Winter' has fostered a heightened awareness among scientists regarding the implications of nuclear armament. The preservation of the freedom of scientific inquiry is critical for the sustainability of research endeavors. A historical examination of nuclear research reveals that scientific investigations possess the potential to inform and direct political actions. This study explores the evolution of scientific research into the development of nuclear weapons by tracing significant historical events. In this context, the interplay between science and politics emerges as a central theme of discussion. The objective of this research is to assess the militarization of scientific inquiry by analyzing the historical development of research in nuclear technology, the foundational principles of nuclear physics, and the incorporation of atomic science into military strategies. Furthermore, the study aims to foster a coordinated approach to safeguard national and global security by encouraging scientific communities to adopt a more nuanced perspective on military applications. Drawing on information from the National Archives and Records Administration (NARA-AAD), the National Security Archives (NSA), and various departmental archives and literature, this research meticulously investigates the interactions between the scientific community, political entities, and military actors during a period characterized by upheaval.

References

  • Arşiv belgeleri:
  • AAD-NARA (National Archives), E.O. 11652: N/A-Pugwash Symposıum On Securıty And Cooperatıon In Europe
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: 076588- Presidential Nuclear Policy Statement
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: GDS- Return to Earth of Skylab.
  • AAD-NARA- E.O. 11652: NA 181236Z 107019 /12- Fourth Informal Meeting With Experts On New Mass Destruction Weapons
  • CİA (Central İnteligence Agency) Archives, Nİ İİA84-1006: The Soviet Approach to Nuclear Winter, Interagency Intelligence Assesment, NND 984036.
  • Clinton Presidental Library, OA/İD-43319; Doc İD-9507853; Foia Mr. Marker, Case Number: 2006-0460-F. FDR Presidental Library, Einstein, A. (1939). Einstein Letter.
  • http://www.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/archives/pdfs/docsworldwar.pdf
  • Fermi at Columbia | Department of Physics. (n.d.). https://web.archive.org/web/20190621185402/https://physics.columbia.edu/home/fermi-columbia
  • İAEA (International Atomic Energy Agency), İNİS-mf- 13106: X4920025: Disarmament, Comprehensive Study on Nuclear Weapons Summary of a United Nations Study, Department for Disarmament Affairs United Nations New York, October 1991, p.5-6.
  • Newsweek. (1947, Mart 10). Einstein, the man who started it all.
  • NSA (National Security Archives), RG 77, MED Records, H-B files, folder no. 76. E. Lapp, Leo Szilard et al., “A Petition to the President of the United States,” July 17, 1945.
  • NSA- L.D. Riabev, ed., Atomnyi Proekt SSSR (Moscow: izd MFTI, 2002), Volume 1, Part 2, 335-336
  • NSA- NARA, RG-60, Case File 146-7-23-25, box 1, file: Serial 6, July 1-August 13, 1942
  • NSA- Records of the Office of Scientific Research and Development, Record Group 227 (hereinafter RG 227), Bush-Conant papers microfilm collection, Roll 1, Target 2, Folder 1, "S-1 Historical File, Section A (1940-1941)." US Department of Energy Archives, DOE-MA-0001-01/99, The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb, Department of Energy: A Summary History, 1977-1994.
  • US Department of State Archives, 386;413: Department Of State Memorandum For The Presıdent, Possible U.S.-Soviet Cooperative Space Projects, State Depatrtment, NLK-76-284, 6a, by MFO NARS, date:6.11.76
  • Araştırma eserleri:
  • Akay, G. G., & Nalçacı, E. (2019). Savaşın hizmetinde bilim: Manhattan Projesi. Madde, Diyalektik ve Toplum, 2(3), 208-218. https://bilimveaydinlanma.org/savasin-hizmetinde-bilim-manhattan-projesi/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024)
  • Allison, G. (2010). Yadernyy Besporyadok: Obozrevaya Atomnyye Ugrozy. Forin Affers (Foreign Affairs), 89(1), 74-85.
  • Aras, H. (2019). Soğuk Savaş Döneminden Günümüze Rusya'nın Nükleer Faaliyetleri ve Politikaları. Ankara Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 10(2), 14-23. https://doi.org/10.33537/sobild.2019.10.2.2
  • Artemov, Y. T. (2014). Sovetskiy Atomnyy Proyekt V Sisteme Komandnoy Ekonomiki, Cahiers du monde russe, 55(3-4), 267-294.
  • Basdevant, J., & Rich, J., Spiro M. (2004). Fundamentals In Nuclear Physics. France: Springer.
  • Beggott, D. (2011). Taynaya istoriya atomnoy bomby. Eksmo.
  • Bekman I.N., (2005). Yadernaya Industriya, Kurs lektsiy, http://profbeckman.narod.ru/NI.htm (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Belous, M.N. & Burdayev, V.P. Gagin, A.A. Greshilov. (2009). Oruzhiye raketno-yadernogo udara. Moskva: Izdatel'stvo MGTU im. N.E. Baumana,
  • Bulut, S. (2024). Hidrojen bombası nedir. https://www.milliyet.com.tr/hidrojen-bombasi-nedir--molatik-13321/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Dunbar, B. Https://www.nasa.gov/wp-content/uploads/static/60counting/NASA: 60 Years& Counting-Human Spaceflight. https://www. nasa.gov/wpcontent/ uploads/static/60counting/NASA.
  • https://www.nasa.gov/specials/60counting/spaceflight.html
  • Franceschini, G., & Schaper, A. (2006). Nuclear Weapons Research and Modernization Without Nuclear Testing. Frankfurt: Peace Research Institute
  • German Chain of Command in Western Europe. https://www.britannica.com/topic/German-Chain-of-Command-in-Western-Europe-June-1944-1673116 (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Gosling, F.G. (2010). The Manhattan Project: Making the Atomic Bomb. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy, http://energy.gov/sites/prod/files/Manhattan_Project_2010.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Gönenç, G. (1983). Hep Aranızda Olacağım-Frederic Joliot-Cruie’nin Hayat Hikayesi. Ankara: Bilim ve Sanat Yayınları.
  • Gül, M. (2021). Bilim ve İktidar İlişkisi: Manhattan Projesi Örneği. Kutadgubilig Felsefe-Bilim Araştırmaları, (43), 53-80.
  • Heilbron, J.L. (2003). Ernest Rutherford: And the Explosion of Atoms. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
  • Hughes, J. (2002). The Manhattan Project: Big Science and The Atom Bomb. Cambridge, UK: Icon Books Ltd.
  • İncekara, R., & Şekercioğlu, S. (2020). Toryum ve Uranyum Zenginleştirme Programlarının Uluslararası Siyaset ve Çevreye Etkileri, Devlet Doğasının Değişimi: Güvenliğin Sınırları, 539-553.
  • https://tasam.org/Files/Icerik/File/%C4%B0GK2Kitap_(5)_pdf_dcb604ed-d681-44e6-87b9-98586cc0bc77.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Kai, B. (2005). American Prometheus: the triumph and tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer, Internet Archive.https://archive.org/ details/americanpromethe00bird/ page/n11/mode/2up (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Khubert, M. Istoriya atomnoy bombi, https://readli.net/chitat-online/?b=260445 &pg=1 (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024)
  • Kissinger, A. H. (2016). Dünya Düzeni, (Çev: Sinem Sultan Gül), I. Baskı. İstanbul: Altan Ambalaj Matbaa AŞ.
  • Kovaleva, R. (2004). Ugolovnaya Otvetstvennost' Za Prestupleniy., Kazan: Svyazannyye S Oborotom Yadernykh Materialov I Radioaktivnykh Veshchestv.
  • Kragh, H. (2012). Rutherford, Radioactivity, and the Atomic Nucleus.
  • https://arxiv.org/ftp/arxiv/papers/1202/1202.0954.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Milestones in the History of U.S. Foreign Relations - Office of the Historian. (n.d.). https://history.state.gov/milestones/1945-1952/baruch-plans (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Murray, L. R., & Holbert, E. K., (2015). The History of Nuclear Energy. Washington DC: U.S Department of Office of Nuclear Energy, Science and Technology.
  • Norris, S. R., & Kristensen M. H. (2009). US Nuclear Warheads, 1945-2009. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 65 (4), https://thebulletin.org/2009/07/u-s-nuclear-warheads-1945-2009/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Paris, Abraham. (2005). Robert J. Oppenheimer. Internet Archive. https://archive.org/details/jrobertoppenheim00pais_0 (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
  • Rai Goerler, & Johnston, H. L. (1991). Buckeyes and the Bomb. https://library.osu.edu/documents/university-archives/subject_ files/manhattan_ project. pdf (Erişim tarihi: 05.10.2024).
  • Robinson, P. (1998). Contribution of the Pugwash Movement to the İnternational Regime Against Chemical and Biological Weapons, Pugwash Meeting no.242, Geneva, Switzerland: The BWC Protocol Negotiation: Unresolved Issues. https://pugwash.org/1998/11/30/geneva-meeting-of-the-cbw-study-group/ (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024). Robock, A. (2010). Nuclear Winter, Clim Change, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. (1), 418-427.
  • http://climate.envsci.rutgers.edu/pdf/WiresClimateChangeNW.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Rotblat, J. (2001). The Early Days Of Pugwash. Physics Today 54, 6(50), 2001, 50-55. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.1387592
  • Rubinson, P. (2019). Pugwash Literature Review.https://www.urban.org/ sites/default/files/2019/06/27/pugwash_literature_review.pdf (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Science History İnstitute. Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner, and Fritz Strassmann.
  • https://www.sciencehistory.org/historical-profile/otto-hahn-lise-meitner-and-fritz-strassmann (Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • Sclove, E. R. (1989). From Alchemy to Atomic War: Frederick Soddy's ‘Technology Assessment of Atomic Energy, 1900-1915. Science, Technology, & Human Values, 14 (2), 163-194. https://doi.org/10.1177/016224398901400
  • Smyth, De W. (1948). Atomic Energy for Military Purposes. Princeton, NJ: Princiton University Press.
  • Sokolski, D. H. (2012). The Next Arms Race. Carlisle: The Nonproliferation Policy Education Center Strategic Studies Institute Book.
  • Stine, D. D. & Congressional Research Service. (2009). The Manhattan Project, the Apollo Program, and Federal Energy Technology R&D Programs: A Comparative Analysis (Report No. RL34645). Congressional Research Service. https://sgp.fas.org/crs/misc/RL34645.pdf
  • Wellerstein, A. (2013). How many people worked on the Manhattan Project? http://blog.nuclearsecrecy.com/2013/11/01/many-people-worked-manhattan-project /(Erişim tarihi: 12.04.2024).
  • 1995 Nobel Peace Prize- An Essay by Irwin Abrams. (n.d.). https://www.irwinabrams.com/books/excerpts/annual95.html (Erişim tarihi: 06.10.2024).
There are 60 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Political History (Other), Late Modern European History
Journal Section MAKALELER
Authors

Zarıfa Nazırlı 0000-0002-7069-1922

Early Pub Date February 25, 2025
Publication Date
Submission Date October 22, 2024
Acceptance Date January 22, 2025
Published in Issue Year 2025 Issue: 31

Cite

APA Nazırlı, Z. (2025). Bilimsel Araştırmaların Nükleer Silahlara Evrilmesi. Anasay(31), 179-198. https://doi.org/10.33404/anasay.1572113