Relatives of Turkish: The Altaic Languages Theory and Genes

Abstract

When Charles Darwin claimed that there could be a connection between linguistic dissemination and human kinship, the science of genetics did not exist. Genetic research has provided the opportunity to scientifically examine this claim. Studies on the parallelism between language and genes are progressing rapidly. Research on the overlap between language and genes largely confirms Darwin’s assertions. However, there are also examples with a significant lack of overlap. In this study, I evaluate genetic research on Altaic languages, especially Turkish. Recent studies show that speakers of the Turkish language are genetically close to their neighbours. Studies related to the Altaic language theory also highlight a relationship of proximity. Nevertheless, there are studies reporting a genetic connection among speakers of Altaic languages. The Altaic language theory, which progresses based on language features like basic words and inflections, is also expanding with insights from archaeology and genetics.

Keywords

• Turkish
• genetics
• language family
• Altaic languages theory
• languages and genes.

Türkçenin Akrabaları: Altay Dilleri Teorisi ve Genler

Abstract

Charles Darwin dillerin yayılımı ile insanların akrabalıkları arasında bir bağ olabileceğini iddia ettiğinde genetik diye bir bilim yoktu. Genetik araştırmaları bu iddiayı bilimsel olarak inceleme imkânı verdi. Dil ve gen paralelliği ile ilgili araştırmalar dikkat çekici bir hızla ilerlemektedir. Dil ve gen örtüşmesiyle ilgili çalışmalar büyük oranda Darwin’i doğrulamaktadır. Bununla birlikte azımsanmayacak sayıda örtüşme bulunmayan örnekler de vardır. Bu çalışmada Altay dilleri ve özellikle de Türkçe ile ilgili gen araştırmalarını değerlendiriyorum. Son araştırmalar Türk dili konuşurlarının genetik olarak komşularına yakın olduğunu göstermektedir. Altay dilleri teorisi ile ilgili çalışmalarda da komşuluk ilişkisi öne çıkmaktadır. Ancak Altay dillerini konuşanlar arasında genetik bir bağ olduğunu raporlayan araştırmalar bulunmaktadır. Temel sözcükler, çekim ögeleri gibi dil özellikleri üzerinden ilerleyen Altay dilleri teorisi arkeoloji ve genetikten gelen bilgilerle de genişleme eğilimdedir.

Keywords

• Türkçe
• genetik
• dil ailesi
• Altay dilleri teorisi
• diller ve genler.

References

1. Arbib, M. A., & Rizzolatti, G. (1996). Neural expectations: A possible evolutionary path from manual skills to language. Communication and Cognition, 29, 393–424.
2. Arnaiz-Villena, A., Karin, M., Bendikuze, N., Gomez-Casado, E., Moscoso, J., Silvera, C., Oguz, F. S., Sarper Diler, A., De Pacho, A., Allende, L., Guillen, J., & Martinez Laso, J. (2001). HLA alleles and haplotypes in the Turkish population: Relatedness to Kurds, Armenians and other Mediterraneans. Tissue Antigens, 57(4), 308–317.
3. Arnaiz-Villena, A., Martinez-Laso, J., Moscoso, J., Livshits, G., Zamora, J., Gomez-Casado, E., Silvera- Redondo, C., Melvin, K., & Crawford, M. H. (2003). HLA genes in the Chuvashian population from European Russia: Admixture of Central European and Mediterranean populations. Human Biology, 75(3), 375–392.
4. Baker, J. L., Rotimi, C. N., & Shriner, D. (2017). Human ancestry correlates with language and reveals that race is not an objective genomic classifier. Scientific Reports 2017 7:1, 7(1), 1–10.
5. Barbieri, C., Blasi, D. E., Arango-Isaza, E., Sotiropoulos, A. G., Hammarström, H., Wichmann, S., Greenhill, S. J., Gray, R. D., Forkel, R., Bickel, B., & Shimizu, K. K. (2022). A global analysis of matches and mismatches between human genetic and linguistic histories. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 119(47), e2122084119.
6. Barbieri, C., & Widmer, P. (2024). Advances in population genetics and language history: How large datasets and ancient DNA changed the picture. Içinde M. Robbeets & M. Hudson (Ed.), Oxford Handbook of Archaeology and Language. Oxford University Press.
7. Berkman, C. C., Dinc, H., Sekeryapan, C., & Togan, I. (2008). Alu insertion polymorphisms and an assessment of the genetic contribution of Central Asia to Anatolia with respect to the Balkans. American journal of physical anthropology, 136(1), 11–18.
8. Berwick, R. C., & Chomsky, N. (2016). Why only us: Language and evolution. The MIT Press.

9. Blažek, V. (2019). Altaic languages. History of research, survey, classification and a sketch of comparative grammar. Masaryk University Press.
10. Campbell, L., & Poser, W. J. (2008). Language classification. History and method. Cambridge University Press.
11. Ceolin, A. (2019). Significance testing of the Altaic family. Diachronica. International Journal for Historical Linguistics, 36(3), 299–336.
12. Ceolin, A., Guardiano, C., Longobardi, G., Irimia, M. A., Bortolussi, L., & Sgarro, A. (2021). At the boundaries of syntactic prehistory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 376(1824), rstb.2020.0197.
13. Chen, J., He, G., Ren, Z., Wang, Q., Liu, Y., Zhang, H., Yang, M., Zhang, H., Ji, J., Zhao, J., Guo, J., Zhu, K., Yang, X., Wang, R., Ma, H., Wang, C. C., & Huang, J. (2021). Genomic insights into the admixture history of Mongolic- and Tungusic-speaking populations from southwestern east Asia. Frontiers in Genetics, 12, 685285.
14. Cinnioǧlu, C., King, R., Kivisild, T., Kalfoǧlu, E., Atasoy, S., Cavalleri, G. L., Lillie, A. S., Roseman, C. C., Lin, A. A., Prince, K., Oefner, P. J., Shen, P., Semino, O., Cavalli-Sforza, L. L., & Underhill, P. A. (2004). Excavating Y-chromosome haplotype strata in Anatolia. Human genetics, 114(2), 127–148.
15. Clauson, G. (2004). Altay teorisinin leksikoistatistiksel bir değerlendirmesi (çev. İ. Ulutaş). Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 13(10), 153–174.
16. Clauson, G. (2017). Türkçe-Moğolca çalışmaları (çev. F. Kömürcü). Türk Dil Kurumu.
17. Colonna, V., Boattini, A., Guardiano, C., Dall’Ara, I., Pettener, D., Longobardi, G., & Barbujani, G. (2011). Long-range comparison between genes and languages based on syntactic distances. Human Heredity, 70(4), 245–254.
18. Corballis, M. C. (2003). İşaretten konuşmaya dilin kökeni ve gelişimi (çev. A. Görey). Kitabevi.
19. de Rachewiltz, I., & Rybatzki, V. (2010). Introduction to Altaic philology: Turkic, Mongolian, Manchu. Brill.
20. Dediu, D. (2015). An introduction to genetics for language scientists: Current concepts, methods and findings. Cambridge University Press.
21. Demir, N., & Yılmaz, E. (2002). Ural-Altay ve Altay Dil Teorisi. Içinde Türkler (C. 1, ss. 394–402). Yeni Türkiye Yay.
22. Di Benedetto, G., Ergüven, A., Stenico, M., Castrì, L., Bertorelle, G., Togan, I., & Barbujani, G. (2001). DNA diversity and population admixture in Anatolia. American journal of physical anthropology, 115(2), 144–156.
23. Doerfer, G. (1983). Temel sözcükler ve Altay dilleri sorunu. Türk Dili Araştımaları Yıllığı-Belleten, 28–29, 1–16.
24. Dunn, M., Terrill, A., Reesink, G., Foley, R. A., & Levinson, S. C. (2005). Structural phylogenetics and the reconstruction of ancient language history. Science, 309(5743), 2072–2075.
25. Eberhard, D. M., Simons, G. F., & Fennig, C. D. (Ed.). (2023). Ethnologue: Languages of the world (26. baskı). SIL International.
26. Egorov, I. M., Dybo, A. V, & Kassian, A. S. (2022). Phylogeny of the Turkic languages inferred from basic vocabulary: Limitations of the lexicostatistical methods in an intensive contact situation. Journal of Language Evolution, 7(1), 16–39.
27. Ercilasun, A. B. (2004). Türk dili tarihi. Akçağ.
28. Feldman, M., Fernández-Domínguez, E., Reynolds, L., Baird, D., Pearson, J., Hershkovitz, I., May, H., Goring-Morris, N., Benz, M., Gresky, J., Bianco, R. A., Fairbairn, A., Mustafaoğlu, G., Stockhammer, P. W., Posth, C., Haak, W., Jeong, C., & Krause, J. (2019). Late Pleistocene human genome suggests a local origin for the first farmers of central Anatolia. Nature Communications 2019 10:1, 10(1), 1–10.
29. Fischer, S. R. (2013). Dilin tarihi (çev. M. Güvenç). Türkiye İş Bankası Kültür Yayınları.
30. Gavashelishvili, A., Chukhua, M., Sakhltkhutsishvili, K., Koptekin, D., & Somel, M. (2023). The time and place of origin of South Caucasian languages: insights into past human societies, ecosystems and human population genetics. Scientific Reports 2023 13:1, 13(1), 1–14.
31. Georg, S. (2004). Sergei Starostin, Anna Dybo, and Oleg Mudrak (eds.): Etymological Dictionary of the Altaic Languages (2003). Diachronica, 21(2), 445–450.
32. Georg, S. (2005). Reply [to Starostin response, 2005]. Diachronica, 22(2), 455–457.
33. Georg, S. (2011). The poverty of Altaicism. Altaique ou pas? (organized by Guillaume Jacques and Anton Antonov on 10 Dec 2011 in Paris).
34. Georg, S. (2013). Remarks on anonymous remarks on my “Poverty of Altaicism”. https://www.academia. edu/2560087/Some_remarks_on_anonymous_remarks_on_my_Poverty_of_Altaicism_.
35. Georg, S., Michalove, P. A., Ramer, A. M., & Sidwell, P. J. (1999). Telling general linguists about Altaic. Journal of Linguistics, 35(1), 65–98.
36. Gökçe, F. (2015). Genetik dilbilime giriş: Altay dilleri sorunu. Sonçağ Yay.
37. Gökçümen, Ö., Gultekin, T., Alakoc, Y. D., Tug, A., Gulec, E., & Schurr, T. G. (2011). Biological ancestries, kinship connections, and projected identities in four Central Anatolian settlements: Insights from culturally contextualized genetic anthropology. American Anthropologist, 113(1), 116–131.
38. Gray, R. (2005). Pushing the time barrier in the quest for language roots. Science, 309(5743), 2007–2008.
39. Greenhill, S. J. (2021). Do languages and genes share cultural evolutionary history? Science Advances, 7(41).
40. Greenhill, S. J., Atkinson, Q. D., Meade, A., & Gray, R. D. (2010). The shape and tempo of language evolution. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 277(1693), 2443–2450.
41. Guardiano, C., & Longobardi, G. (2005). Parametric comparison and language taxonomy. Içinde M. vd. Batllori (Ed.), Grammaticalization and Parametric Variation (ss. 149–174). Oxford University Press.
42. He, G., Wang, M., Zou, X., Yeh, H., Liu, C., Liu, C., Chen, G., & Wang, C. (2022). Extensive ethnolinguistic diversity at the crossroads of North China and South Siberia reflects multiple sources of genetic diversity. Journal of Systematics and Evolution.
43. Hellenthal, G., Busby, G. B. J., Band, G., Wilson, J. F., Capelli, C., Falush, D., & Myers, S. (2014). A genetic atlas of human admixture history. Science, 343(6172), 747–751.
44. Hodoǧlugil, U., & Mahley, R. W. (2012). Turkish population structure and genetic ancestry reveal relatedness among Eurasian populations. Annals of Human Genetics, 76(2), 128–141.
45. Hruschka, D. J., Branford, S., Smith, E. D., Wilkins, J., Meade, A., Pagel, M., & Bhattacharya, T. (2015). Detecting regular sound changes in linguistics as events of concerted evolution. Current Biology, 25(1), 1–9.
46. Hübler, N. (2022). Phylogenetic signal and rate of evolutionary change in language structures. Royal Society Open Science, 9(3).
47. Hübler, N., & Greenhill, S. J. (2023). Modelling admixture across language levels to evaluate deep history claims. Journal of Language Evolution, XX, 1–18.
48. Hublin, J. J., Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S. E., Freidline, S. E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M. M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S., Harvati, K., & Gunz, P. (2017). New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the pan- African origin of Homo sapiens. Nature 2017 546:7657, 546(7657), 289–292.
49. Janhunen, J. (2023). The unity and diversity of Altaic. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurevlinguistics- 030521-042356, 9(1), 135–154.
50. Janhunen, J., Peltomaa, M., Sandman, E., & Dongzhou, X. (2008). Wutun (Languages of the World Materials). Lincom Europa.
51. Jeong, C., Balanovsky, O., Lukianova, E., Kahbatkyzy, N., Flegontov, P., Zaporozhchenko, V., Immel, A., Wang, C.-C., Ixan, O., Khussainova, E., Bekmanov, B., Zaibert, V., Lavryashina, M., Pocheshkhova, E., Yusupov, Y., Agdzhoyan, A., Koshel, S., Bukin, A., Nymadawa, P., … Krause, J. (2019). The genetic history of admixture across inner Eurasia. Nature Ecology & Evolution, 3(6), 966–976.
52. Jeong, C., Ozga, A. T., Witonsky, D. B., Malmström, H., Edlund, H., Hofman, C. A., Hagan, R. W., Jakobsson, M., Lewis, C. M., Aldenderfer, M. S., Rienzo, A. Di, & Warinner, C. (2016). Long-term genetic stability and a high-altitude East Asian origin for the peoples of the high valleys of the Himalayan arc. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(27), 7485–7490.
53. Jeong, C., Wang, C. C., & Ning, C. (2020). Transeurasian unity from a population-genetic perspective. Içinde M. Robbeets & A. Savelyev (Ed.), The Oxford Guide to the Transeurasian Languages (ss. 784– 793). Oxford University Press.
54. Jeong, C., Wang, K., Wilkin, S., Taylor, W. T. T., Miller, B. K., Bemmann, J. H., Stahl, R., Chiovelli, C., Knolle, F., Ulziibayar, S., Khatanbaatar, D., Erdenebaatar, D., Erdenebat, U., Ochir, A., Ankhsanaa, G., Vanchigdash, C., Ochir, B., Munkhbayar, C., Tumen, D., … Warinner, C. (2020). A dynamic 6,000-year genetic history of Eurasia’s eastern steppe. Cell, 183(4), 890-904.e29.
55. Johansson, S. (2005). Origins of language. Constraints on hypotheses. John Benjamins Publishing Company.
56. Jones, E. R., Gonzalez-Fortes, G., Connell, S., Siska, V., Eriksson, A., Martiniano, R., McLaughlin, R. L., Gallego Llorente, M., Cassidy, L. M., Gamba, C., Meshveliani, T., Bar-Yosef, O., Müller, W., Belfer-Cohen, A., Matskevich, Z., Jakeli, N., Higham, T. F. G., Currat, M., Lordkipanidze, D., … Bradley, D. G. (2015). Upper Palaeolithic genomes reveal deep roots of modern Eurasians. Nature Communications, 6, 8912.
57. Kars, M. E., Başak, A. N., Onat, O. E., Bilguvar, K., Choi, J., Itan, Y., Çaglar, C., Palvadeau, R., Casanova, J. L., Cooper, D. N., Stenson, P. D., Yavuz, A., Buluş, H., Günel, M., Friedman, J. M., & Özçelik, T. (2021). The genetic structure of the Turkish population reveals high levels of variation and admixture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 118(36), e2026076118.
58. Kassian, A. S., Starostin, G., Egorov, I. M., Logunova, E. S., & Dybo, A. (2021). Permutation test applied to lexical reconstructions partially supports the Altaic linguistic macrofamily. Evolutionary Human Sciences, 3.
59. Kerimoğlu, C. (2016). Dilin kökeni arayışları I: Dilin kökeniyle ilgili akademik tartışmalar. Dil Araştırmaları, 18, 47–84.
60. Kerimoğlu, C. (2017). Dilin kökeni arayışları II: FOXP2 geni. Dil Araştırmaları, 21, 35–50.
61. Kerimoğlu, C. (2018). Dilin kökeni arayışları 3: Hayvan iletişimi-I. Dil Araştırmaları, 23, 23–56.
62. Kerimoğlu, C. (2019a). Dilin kökeni arayışları 3: Hayvan iletişimi-II. Dil Araştırmaları, 24, 43–73.
63. Kerimoğlu, C. (2019b). Dilin kökeni arayışları 4: Neandertallerin dili var mıydı? Dil Araştırmaları, 25, 7–53. Kerimoğlu, C. (2020). Neandertaller konuşur muydu? İnsanın ve dilin kökenine bir yolculuk. Varyant Yay.
64. Kerimoğlu, C. (2021). Chomsky Darwin’e karşı: Evrensel dilbilgisi, dilin kökeni ve evrim. Varyant Yay.
65. Kerimoğlu, C. (2022). Dilin kökeni arayışları 5: Beyin ve dil. Dil Araştırmaları, 16(30).
66. Kerimoğlu, C. (2023). Gen araştırmaları ve dil aileleri. Içinde C. Kerimoğlu, İ. Şahin, & E. Ayan (Ed.), Prof. Dr. Zeki Kaymaz Armağanı (ss. 349–364). Pegem Akademi.
67. Kılınç, G. M., Koptekin, D., Atakuman, Ç., Sümer, A. P., Dönertas, H. M., Yaka, R., Bilgin, C. C., Büyükkarakaya, A. M., Baird, D., Altinişik, E., Flegontov, P., Götherström, A., Togan, İ., & Somel, M. (2017). Archaeogenomic analysis of the first steps of Neolithization in Anatolia and the Aegean. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 284(1867).
68. Kılınç, G. M., Omrak, A., Özer, F., Günther, T., Büyükkarakaya, A. M., Bıçakçı, E., Baird, D., Dönertaş, H. M., Ghalichi, A., Yaka, R., Koptekin, D., Açan, S. C., Parvizi, P., Krzewińska, M., Daskalaki, E. A., Yüncü, E., Dağtaş, N. D., Fairbairn, A., Pearson, J., … Götherström, A. (2016). The demographic development of the first farmers in Anatolia. Current Biology, 26(19), 2659–2666.
69. Lee, J. Y., & Kuang, S. (2017). A comparative analysis of Chinese historical sources and y-dna studies with regard to the early and medieval Turkic peoples. Inner Asia, 19(2), 197–239.
70. Longobardi, G. (2003). Methods in parametric linguistics and cognitive history. Linguistic Variation Yearbook, 3(1), 101–138.
71. Longobardi, G., Ghirotto, S., Guardiano, C., Tassi, F., Benazzo, A., Ceolin, A., & Barbujani, G. (2015). Across language families: Genome diversity mirrors linguistic variation within Europe. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 157(4), 630–640.
72. Longobardi, G., & Guardiano, C. (2009). Evidence for syntax as a signal of historical relatedness. Lingua, 119(11), 1679–1706.
73. Longobardi, G., & Guardiano, C. (2017). Phylogenetic reconstruction in syntax: The parametric comparison method. Içinde The Cambridge Handbook of Historical Syntax (ss. 241–272). Cambridge University Press.
74. Longobardi, G., Guardiano, C., Silvestri, G., Boattini, A., & Ceolin, A. (2013). Toward a syntactic phylogeny of modern Indo-European languages. Journal of Historical Linguistics, 3(1), 122–152.
75. Mallory, J., Dybo, A., & Balanovsky, O. (2019). The impact of genetics research on archaeology and linguistics in Eurasia. Içinde Russian Journal of Genetics (C. 55, Sayı 12, ss. 1472–1487). Pleiades Publishing.
76. Malyarchuk, B., Derenko, M., Denisova, G., Wozniak, M., Grzybowski, T., Dambueva, I., & Zakharov, I. (2010). Phylogeography of the Y-chromosome haplogroup C in northern Eurasia. Annals of Human Genetics, 74(6), 539–546.
77. Manaster Ramer, A., Vovin, A., & Sidwell, P. (1998). On body part terms as evidence in favor of the Altaic hypothesis. Ural-altaische Jahrbücher (Neue Folge), 15, 116–138.
78. Martin, S. E. (1966). Lexical evidence relating Korean to Japanese. Language, 42(2), 185.
79. Matsumae, H., Ranacher, P., Savage, P. E., Blasi, D. E., Currie, T. E., Koganebuchi, K., Nishida, N., Sato, T., Tanabe, H., Tajima, A., Brown, S., Stoneking, M., Shimizu, K. K., Oota, H., & Bickel, B. (2021). Exploring correlations in genetic and cultural variation across language families in northeast Asia. Science Advances, 7(34), 9223–9241.
80. McMahon, A., & McMahon, R. (2013). Evolutionary linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
81. McMahon, R. (2004). Genes and languages. Public Health Genomics, 7(1), 2–13.
82. Miller, R. A. (1971). Japanese and the other Altaic languages. The Chicago University Press.
83. Miller, R. A., & Street, J. (1975). Altaic elements in Old Japanese. [yazarların kendi basımı].
84. Nichols, J. (1992). Linguistic diversity in space and time. University of Chicago Press.
85. Novgorodov, I., Lemskaya, V., Tokmashev, D., & Aktaş, E. (2015). On a multidisciplinary study of South Siberian Turkic varieties (in Comparison with Yakut). Part I. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 206, 114–122.
86. Pagel, M. (2000). The history, rate and pattern of world linguistic evolution. Içinde C. Knight, M. Studdert- Kennedy, & J. Hurford (Ed.), The Evolutionary Emergence of Language (ss. 391–416). Cambridge University Press.
87. Pagel, M. (2017). Darwinian perspectives on the evolution of human languages. Psychonomic Bulletin and Review, 24(1), 151–157.
88. Pakendorf, B., Wiebe, V., Tarskaia, L. A., Spitsyn, V. A., Soodyall, H., Rodewald, A., & Stoneking, M. (2003). Mitochondrial DNA evidence for admixed origins of central Siberian populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 120(3), 211–224.
89. Pereltsvaig, A. (2021). Languages of the world. An introduction (3. baskı). Cambridge University Press. Pugach, I., Matveev, R., Spitsyn, V., Makarov, S., Novgorodov, I., Osakovsky, V., Stoneking, M., & Pakendorf, B. (2016). The complex admixture history and recent southern origins of Siberian populations. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 33(7), 1777–1795.
90. Rama, T., & Wichmann, S. (2020). A test of Generalized Bayesian dating: A new linguistic dating method. PLOS ONE, 15(8), e0236522.
91. Ramstedt, G. J. (1922). Zur frage nach der stellung des tschuwassischen. Journal de la Societe Finno- Ougrienne, 38(3), 3–34.
92. Ramstedt, G. J. (1952). Einfuhrung in die Altaische sprachwissenschaft 2: Formenlehre. Suomalais Ugrilainen Seura.
93. Ramstedt, G. J. (1957). Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft 1: Lautlehre. Suomalais-ugrilainen seura.
94. Ramstedt, G. J. (1966). Einführung in die altaische Sprachwissenschaft 3: Register. Suomalais-Ugrilainen Seura.
95. Renfrew, C. (1992). Archaeology, genetics and linguistic diversity. Man, 27(3), 445.
96. Renfrew, C. (2000). At the edge of knowability: Towards a prehistory of languages. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 10(1), 7–34.
97. Renfrew, C. (2010). Archaeogenetics - Towards a “new synthesis”? Current Biology, 20(4), R162–R165.
98. Richter, D., Grün, R., Joannes-Boyau, R., Steele, T. E., Amani, F., Rué, M., Fernandes, P., Raynal, J. P., Geraads, D., Ben-Ncer, A., Hublin, J. J., & McPherron, S. P. (2017). The age of the hominin fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco, and the origins of the Middle Stone Age. Nature 2017 546:7657, 546(7657), 293–296.
99. Robbeets, M. (2005). Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic and Turkic? Harrassowitz Verlag.
100. Robbeets, M., & Bouckaert, R. (2018). Bayesian phylolinguistics reveals the internal structure of theTranseurasian family. Journal of Language Evolution, 3(2), 145–162.
101. Robbeets, M., Bouckaert, R., Conte, M., Savelyev, A., Li, T., An, D.-I., Shinoda, K., Cui, Y., Kawashima, T.,
102. Kim, G., Uchiyama, J., Dolińska, J., Oskolskaya, S., Yamano, K.-Y., Seguchi, N., Tomita, H., Takamiya, H.,
103. Kanzawa-Kiriyama, H., Oota, H., … Ning, C. (2021). Triangulation supports agricultural spread of the Transeurasian languages. Nature 2021, 1–6.
104. Robbeets, M., & Savelyev, A. (Ed.). (2017). Language dispersal beyond farming. John Benjamins Publishing.
105. Robbeets, M., & Savelyev, A. (Ed.). (2020). The Oxford guide to the Transeurasian languages. Oxford University Press.
106. Ruhlen, M. (2006). Dilin kökeni (çev. İsmail Ulutaş). Hece Yay.
107. Santos, P., Gonzàlez-Fortes, G., Trucchi, E., Ceolin, A., Cordoni, G., Guardiano, C., Longobardi, G., & Barbujani, G. (2020). More rule than exception: Parallel evidence of ancient migrations in grammars and genomes of Finno-Ugric speakers. Genes 2020, Vol. 11, Page 1491, 11(12), 1491.
108. Savelyev, A., & Robbeets, M. (2020). Bayesian phylolinguistics infers the internal structure and the timedepth of the Turkic language family. Journal of Language Evolution, 5(1), 39–53.
109. Schott, W. (1841). De lingua Tschuwaschorum. Veitii & socii sumpt.
110. Siska, V., Jones, E. R., Jeon, S., Bhak, Y., Kim, H. M., Cho, Y. S., Kim, H., Lee, K., Veselovskaya, E., Balueva, T., Gallego-Llorente, M., Hofreiter, M., Bradley, D. G., Eriksson, A., Pinhasi, R., Bhak, J., & Manica, A. (2017). Genome-wide data from two early Neolithic East Asian individuals dating to 7700 years ago. Science Advances, 3(2).
111. Starostin, S. A., Dybo, A. V, & Mudrak, O. A. (2003). An etymological dictionary of Altaic languages. Brill.
112. Stoneking, M. (2017). An introduction to molecular anthropology. Wiley Blackwell.
113. Street, J. (1980). Japanese and the Altaic Languages. Orientalistische Literaturzeitung, 75(1–6), 51–53.
114. Swadesh, M. (1952). Lexico-statistic dating of prehistoric ethnic contacts: With special reference to North American Indians and Eskimos. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Studies of Historical Documents in the Library of the American Philosophical Society , 96(4), 452–463.
115. Swadesh, M. (1955). Towards greater accuracy in lexicostatistic dating. International Journal of American Linguistics, 21(2), 121–137.
116. Swadesh, M., Sherzer, J., & Hymes, D. H. (1971). The origin and diversification of language. Aldine Atherton.
117. Tambets, K., Yunusbayev, B., Hudjashov, G., Ilumäe, A. M., Rootsi, S., Honkola, T., Vesakoski, O., Atkinson, Q., Skoglund, P., Kushniarevich, A., Litvinov, S., Reidla, M., Metspalu, E., Saag, L., Rantanen, T., Karmin, M., Parik, J., Zhadanov, S. I., Gubina, M., … Metspalu, M. (2018). Genes reveal traces of common recent demographic history for most of the Uralic-speaking populations. Genome Biology, 19(1), 1–20.
118. Tekin, T. (2003). Makaleler 1: Altayistik. Grafiker Yayıncılık.
119. Tian, Z., Tao, Y., Zhu, K., Jacques, G., Ryder, R. J., Fuente, J. A. A. de la, Antonov, A., Xia, Z., Zhang, Y., Ji, X., Ren, X., He, G., Guo, J., Wang, R., Yang, X., Zhao, J., Xu, D., Gray, R. D., Zhang, M., … Pellard, T. (2022). Triangulation fails when neither linguistic, genetic, nor archaeological data support the Transeurasian narrative. bioRxiv, 2022.06.09.495471.
120. Tjuka, A., Forkel, R., & List, J.-M. (2024). Universal and cultural factors shape body part vocabularies. Scientific Reports 2024 14:1, 14(1), 1–12.
121. Tömöry, G., Csányi, B., Bogácsi-Szabó, E., Kalmár, T., Czibula, Á., Csosz, A., Priskin, K., Mende, B., Langó, P., Downes, C. S., & Raskó, I. (2007). Comparison of maternal lineage and biogeographic analyses of ancient and modern Hungarian populations. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 134(3), 354–368.
122. Tuna, O. N. (1992). Altay dilleri teorisi . Içinde Türk Dünyası El Kitabı (C. 2). TKAE Yay.
123. Turchin, P., Peiros, I. I., & Gell-Mann, M. (2010). Analyzing genetic connections between languages by matching consonant classes. Journal of Language Relationship, 3, 117–126.
124. Vovin, A. (2005). The end of the Altaic controversy in memory of Gerhard Doerfer. Source: Central Asiatic Journal, 49(1), 71–132.
125. Vovin, A. (2009). ‘Japanese, Korean, and Other Non-Altaic Languages’, a review article of Martine Robbeets. Is Japanese related to Korean, Tungusic, Mongolic, and Turkic? Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005. Central Asiatic Journal, 53(1), 105–147.
126. Vovin, A. (2011). Why Japonic is not demonstrably related to ‘Altaic” or Korean. Historical Linguistics in the Asia-Pacific region and the position of Japanese, ICHL XX, Osaka.
127. Wang, C. C., Yeh, H. Y., Popov, A. N., Zhang, H. Q., Matsumura, H., Sirak, K., Cheronet, O., Kovalev, A., Rohland, N., Kim, A. M., Mallick, S., Bernardos, R., Tumen, D., Zhao, J., Liu, Y. C., Liu, J. Y., Mah, M.,
128. Wang, K., Zhang, Z., … Reich, D. (2021). Genomic insights into the formation of human populations in East Asia. Nature 2021 591:7850, 591(7850), 413–419.
129. Wang, Z., Wang, M., Hu, L., He, G., & Nie, S. (2024). Evolutionary profiles and complex admixture landscape in East Asia: New insights from modern and ancient Y chromosome variation perspectives. Heliyon, 10(9), e30067.
130. Wei, L. H., Huang, Y. Z., Yan, S., Wen, S. Q., Wang, L. X., Du, P. X., Yao, D. L., Li, S. L., Yang, Y. J., Jin, L., & Li, H. (2017). Phylogeny of Y-chromosome haplogroup C3b-F1756, an important paternal lineage in Altaicspeaking populations. Journal of Human Genetics 2017 62:10, 62(10), 915–918.
131. Wen, S., Xie, X., & Xu, D. (2017). Relationship between Altaic speaking populations and their languages viewed from Y chromosomes. Languages and Genes in Northwestern China and Adjacent Regions, 79–86.
132. Wiedemann, F. (1838). Ueber die früheren Sitze der tschudischen Völker und ihre Sprachverwandtschaft mit den Völkern Mittelhochasiens : Einladung zur öffentlichen Prüfung im hiesigen Gymnasium am 27sten und. Gedruckt bei Lindfors Erben.
133. Xu, D., & Li, H. (Ed.). (2017). Languages and genes in Northwestern China and adjacent regions. Springer Singapore.
134. Xu, D., & Wen, S. (2017). The silk road: Language and population admixture and replacement. Languages and Genes in Northwestern China and Adjacent Regions, 55–78.
135. Yaka, R., Mapelli, I., Kaptan, D., Doğu, A., Chyleński, M., Erdal, Ö. D., Koptekin, D., Vural, K. B., Bayliss, A., Mazzucato, C., Fer, E., Çokoğlu, S. S., Lagerholm, V. K., Krzewińska, M., Karamurat, C., Gemici, H. C., Sevkar, A., Dağtaş, N. D., Kılınç, G. M., … Somel, M. (2021). Variable kinship patterns in Neolithic Anatolia revealed by ancient genomes. Current Biology, 31(11), P2455-2468.E18.
136. Yunusbayev, B., Metspalu, M., Metspalu, E., Valeev, A., Litvinov, S., Valiev, R., Akhmetova, V., Balanovska, E., Balanovsky, O., Turdikulova, S., Dalimova, D., Nymadawa, P., Bahmanimehr, A., Sahakyan, H., Tambets, K., Fedorova, S., Barashkov, N., Khidiyatova, I., Mihailov, E., … Villems, R. (2015). The genetic legacy of the expansion of Turkic-speaking nomads across Eurasia. PLoS Genetics, 11(4).
137. Zhang, H., Ji, T., Pagel, M., & Mace, R. (2020). Dated phylogeny suggests early Neolithic origin of Sino- Tibetan languages. Scientific Reports 2020 10:1, 10(1), 1–8.
138. Zhang, M., Yan, S., Pan, W., & Jin, L. (2019). Phylogenetic evidence for Sino-Tibetan origin in northern China in the Late Neolithic. Nature 2019 569:7754, 569(7754), 112–115.