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The Impact of Geopolitical Risks on Defense Expenditures: The Case of Türkiye

Year 2026, Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 99 - 124, 28.02.2026
https://doi.org/10.25229/beta.1669762
https://izlik.org/JA26CG76EA

Abstract

This study aims to examine the cointegration relationship between the geopolitical risk index (JRE) and defense expenditures in Türkiye for the short and long term using annual data for the period 1985-2023. For this purpose, the ratio of defense expenditures to GDP, JRE (Caldara & Iacoviello, 2022), real GDP growth rate (% change), inflation and current account balance data were used, respectively. All series except JRE were obtained from the World Bank database. The findings reveal that there is a positive relationship between the geopolitical risk index and defense expenditures in the short term and a negative relationship in the long term. It has been found that a 1% increase in the geopolitical risk index in the short term increases defense expenditures by 1.01%, 0.70% and 0.24% with a lag of one, two and three periods, respectively. In contrast, the long-term analysis shows that a 1% increase in the geopolitical risk index decreases defense expenditures by 3.20%. These results show that geopolitical risks lead governments to spend more on defense in the short term, but in the long term, expenditures decrease in line with technological transformation, domestic defense industry development, budget balance and strategic planning.

References

  • Adaçay, F. R., & Misirlioğlu, I. (2023). Economic impact of defense expenditures in Turkey: A dual-approach analysis from 1974 to 2021. Opportunities and Challenges in Sustainability, 2(4), 206–229. https://doi.org/10.56578/ocs020404
  • Baldwin, D. A. (1997). The concept of security. Review of International Studies, 23(1), 5–26.
  • Barış, S., & Barış, A. (2024). Jeopolitik riskler savunma harcamalarını etkiliyor mu? Panel ARDL yaklaşımı ile bir analiz. International Journal of Social Inquiry, 17(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.37093/ijsi.1428209
  • Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2), 407–443. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937943
  • Buzdağlı, Ö., & Özdemir, D. (2021). Jeopolitik risk endeksinin askeri harcamalar üzerindeki etkisi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Vizyoner Dergisi, 12(29), 188–203.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2018). Measuring geopolitical risk (International Finance Discussion Paper No. 1222). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2021, November). Measuring geopolitical risk (Working Paper). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve Board.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2022). Measuring geopolitical risk. American Economic Review, 112(4), 1194–1225. https://www.matteoiacoviello.com/gpr.htm
  • Demir Bingöl, N., & Emsen, Ö. S. (2023). Jeopolitik risk endeksi ve askeri harcamalar arasındaki ilişkiler: Kulüp yakınsama analizinden kanıtlar. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 38(4), 1029–1051. https://doi.org/10.24988/ije.1295517
  • Demirci, O., & Ayyıldız, F. V. (2023). Jeopolitik risklerin ve savunma harcamalarının iktisadi büyümeyle ilişkisi: MIST ülkeleri örneği. Fiscaoeconomia, 7(3), 1929–1947. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1277050
  • Dunne, P., & Perlo-Freeman, S. (2003). The demand for military spending in developing countries. International Review of Applied Economics, 17(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/713673166
  • Dunne, J. P., Perlo-Freeman, S., & Smith, R. P. (2008). The demand for military expenditure in developing countries: Hostility versus capability. Defence and Peace Economics, 19(4), 293–302.
  • Dünya Bankası. (2024). World Development Indicators. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
  • Efe, E., & Aydın, Ü. (2023). Makroekonomik değişkenlerin ve jeopolitik risk endeksinin savunma harcamalarına etkisi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24(3), 692–707.
  • Granger, C., & Newbold, P. (1974). Spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of Econometrics, 2, 111–120.
  • Khan, K., Su, C. W., & Rizvi, S. K. A. (2022). Guns and blood: A review of geopolitical risk and defence expenditures. Defence and Peace Economics, 33(1), 42–58.
  • Knight, M., Loayza, N., & Villanueva, D. (1996). The peace dividend: Military spending cuts and economic growth. IMF Staff Papers, 43(1), 1–37.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289–326.
  • Phillips, P. C. (1986). Understanding spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of Econometrics, 33(3), 311–340.
  • Reinhart, C. M., & Rogoff, K. S. (2010). Growth in a time of debt. American Economic Review, 100(2), 573–578.
  • Sandler, T., & Hartley, K. (1995). The economics of defense. Cambridge University Press.
  • Smith, R. P. (1980). Military expenditure and investment in OECD countries, 1954–1973. Journal of Comparative Economics, 4(1), 19–32.
  • Sweidan, O. D. (2023). Geopolitical risk and military expenditures: Evidence from the US economy. Russian Journal of Economics, 9(2), 201–218.
  • Tutuncu, A., Bayraktar, Y., & Khan, K. (2024). Is geopolitical risk a reason or excuse for bigger military expenditures? Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 30(4), 455–476. https://doi.org/10.1515/peps-2024-0027
  • Yıldırım, J., & Sezgin, S. (2002). Defense, education and health expenditures in Turkey, 1924–96. Journal of Peace Research, 39(5), 569–580.

Jeopolitik Risklerin Savunma Harcamaları Üzerindeki Etkisi: Türkiye Örneği

Year 2026, Volume: 11 Issue: 1, 99 - 124, 28.02.2026
https://doi.org/10.25229/beta.1669762
https://izlik.org/JA26CG76EA

Abstract

Bu çalışma, Türkiye’de 1985-2023 dönemine ait yıllık verileri kullanarak jeopolitik risk endeksi (JRE) ile savunma harcamaları arasındaki eşbütünleşme ilişkisini kısa ve uzun dönem için incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Bu amaç doğrultusunda, savunma harcamalarının GSYİH’ye oranı, JRE (Caldara & Iacoviello, 2022), reel GSYİH büyüme oranı (% değişim), enflasyon ve cari denge verileri sırasıyla kullanılmıştır. JRE dışındaki tüm seriler Dünya Bankası veri tabanından temin edilmiştir. Elde edilen bulgular, jeopolitik risk endeksi ile savunma harcamaları arasında kısa vadede pozitif, uzun vadede ise negatif bir ilişki olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Kısa dönemde jeopolitik risk endeksindeki %1’lik bir artışın savunma harcamalarını bir, iki ve üç dönem gecikmeli olarak sırasıyla %1.01, %0.70 ve %0.24 oranında artırdığı tespit edilmiştir. Buna karşılık, uzun dönem analizi, jeopolitik risk endeksindeki %1’lik bir artışın savunma harcamalarını %3.20 oranında azalttığını göstermektedir. Bu sonuçlar, jeopolitik risklerin kısa vadede hükümetleri daha fazla savunma harcaması yapmaya yönelttiğini, ancak uzun vadede teknolojik dönüşüm, yerli savunma sanayii gelişimi, bütçe dengesi ve stratejik planlamalar doğrultusunda harcamaların azaldığını göstermektedir.

References

  • Adaçay, F. R., & Misirlioğlu, I. (2023). Economic impact of defense expenditures in Turkey: A dual-approach analysis from 1974 to 2021. Opportunities and Challenges in Sustainability, 2(4), 206–229. https://doi.org/10.56578/ocs020404
  • Baldwin, D. A. (1997). The concept of security. Review of International Studies, 23(1), 5–26.
  • Barış, S., & Barış, A. (2024). Jeopolitik riskler savunma harcamalarını etkiliyor mu? Panel ARDL yaklaşımı ile bir analiz. International Journal of Social Inquiry, 17(1), 69–85. https://doi.org/10.37093/ijsi.1428209
  • Barro, R. J. (1991). Economic growth in a cross section of countries. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 106(2), 407–443. https://doi.org/10.2307/2937943
  • Buzdağlı, Ö., & Özdemir, D. (2021). Jeopolitik risk endeksinin askeri harcamalar üzerindeki etkisi. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Vizyoner Dergisi, 12(29), 188–203.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2018). Measuring geopolitical risk (International Finance Discussion Paper No. 1222). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2021, November). Measuring geopolitical risk (Working Paper). Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve Board.
  • Caldara, D., & Iacoviello, M. (2022). Measuring geopolitical risk. American Economic Review, 112(4), 1194–1225. https://www.matteoiacoviello.com/gpr.htm
  • Demir Bingöl, N., & Emsen, Ö. S. (2023). Jeopolitik risk endeksi ve askeri harcamalar arasındaki ilişkiler: Kulüp yakınsama analizinden kanıtlar. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 38(4), 1029–1051. https://doi.org/10.24988/ije.1295517
  • Demirci, O., & Ayyıldız, F. V. (2023). Jeopolitik risklerin ve savunma harcamalarının iktisadi büyümeyle ilişkisi: MIST ülkeleri örneği. Fiscaoeconomia, 7(3), 1929–1947. https://doi.org/10.25295/fsecon.1277050
  • Dunne, P., & Perlo-Freeman, S. (2003). The demand for military spending in developing countries. International Review of Applied Economics, 17(1), 23–48. https://doi.org/10.1080/713673166
  • Dunne, J. P., Perlo-Freeman, S., & Smith, R. P. (2008). The demand for military expenditure in developing countries: Hostility versus capability. Defence and Peace Economics, 19(4), 293–302.
  • Dünya Bankası. (2024). World Development Indicators. https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators
  • Efe, E., & Aydın, Ü. (2023). Makroekonomik değişkenlerin ve jeopolitik risk endeksinin savunma harcamalarına etkisi. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24(3), 692–707.
  • Granger, C., & Newbold, P. (1974). Spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of Econometrics, 2, 111–120.
  • Khan, K., Su, C. W., & Rizvi, S. K. A. (2022). Guns and blood: A review of geopolitical risk and defence expenditures. Defence and Peace Economics, 33(1), 42–58.
  • Knight, M., Loayza, N., & Villanueva, D. (1996). The peace dividend: Military spending cuts and economic growth. IMF Staff Papers, 43(1), 1–37.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y., & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds testing approaches to the analysis of level relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289–326.
  • Phillips, P. C. (1986). Understanding spurious regressions in econometrics. Journal of Econometrics, 33(3), 311–340.
  • Reinhart, C. M., & Rogoff, K. S. (2010). Growth in a time of debt. American Economic Review, 100(2), 573–578.
  • Sandler, T., & Hartley, K. (1995). The economics of defense. Cambridge University Press.
  • Smith, R. P. (1980). Military expenditure and investment in OECD countries, 1954–1973. Journal of Comparative Economics, 4(1), 19–32.
  • Sweidan, O. D. (2023). Geopolitical risk and military expenditures: Evidence from the US economy. Russian Journal of Economics, 9(2), 201–218.
  • Tutuncu, A., Bayraktar, Y., & Khan, K. (2024). Is geopolitical risk a reason or excuse for bigger military expenditures? Peace Economics, Peace Science and Public Policy, 30(4), 455–476. https://doi.org/10.1515/peps-2024-0027
  • Yıldırım, J., & Sezgin, S. (2002). Defense, education and health expenditures in Turkey, 1924–96. Journal of Peace Research, 39(5), 569–580.
There are 25 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Policy of Treasury
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Ayşegül Durucan 0000-0001-8424-4018

Submission Date April 3, 2025
Acceptance Date October 22, 2025
Publication Date February 28, 2026
DOI https://doi.org/10.25229/beta.1669762
IZ https://izlik.org/JA26CG76EA
Published in Issue Year 2026 Volume: 11 Issue: 1

Cite

APA Durucan, A. (2026). Jeopolitik Risklerin Savunma Harcamaları Üzerindeki Etkisi: Türkiye Örneği. Bulletin of Economic Theory and Analysis, 11(1), 99-124. https://doi.org/10.25229/beta.1669762

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