COUNSELING AND GUIDANCE PROGRAMS FOR WOMEN WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF PARADIGM SHIFT IN US PRISON SERVICES

Abstract

The American criminal and correctional authorities have designed and implemented programs aiming rehabilitation of male prisoners alone, for many years, neglecting women prisoners and the correctional works for their problems. However, due to the increasing number of female prisoners in United States prisons, the state and federal correctional authorities have faced the fact that they focus on women-oriented problems and their solution. The awareness that has emerged over time has opened the door to the paradigm shift of American correctional authorities towards women. This awareness has led to the initiation of family protection programs in some states to address the needs of women prisoners and their families more respectfully. Moreover, it has led to the launch of several new programs: inmate mothers should be included in educational programs in order to respond to the physical, emotional and psychological needs of their children; those mothers should meet with their minor children and adolescents with games and various activities in special and child-friendly rooms outside the normal visiting room; it should be given additional visitation rights for those mothers who participate in parenting trainings; a new mother should be allowed to live with her infant in a private section for up to 18 months. In this article, parallel to this paradigm shift especially in the late 90s and early 2000s, some national and local correctional works and projects focused on the needs of female prisoners that was initially neglected but then taken into consideration due to the increasing number of women convicts and needs peculiar to them, will be examined. The treatments, medical processes, physical and mental treatment methods required by the clinical psychology offered to the prisoners based on prisoners’ needs are out of our scope. This study, rather, focuses on practices -their effects and efficiency- carried on successfully with combined efforts of criminal correctional authorities, psychologists, municipal and church officials, social service experts and volunteers that aim to support female prisoners, especially those with children.

Keywords

• Incarcerated women
• Parenting preservation program
• Extended prison visitation
• correctional programs

ABD CEZAEVİ HİZMETLERİNDE PARADİGMA DEĞİŞİMİ BAĞLAMINDA KADINLAR İÇİN DANIŞMANLIK VE REHBERLİK PROGRAMLARI

Abstract

Amerika ceza ve ıslah makamları uzun yıllar kadın mahkumları ve onların sorunlarına yönelik ıslah çalışmalarını ihmal ederek, yalnızca erkek mahkumları ıslaha yönelik programlar tasarlamış ve uygulamıştır. Ancak Birleşik devletler hapishanelerinde kadın mahkum nüfusunun her geçen gün artması sebebiyle, eyalet ve federal ıslah makamları kadın odaklı sorunlara eğilme ve bu çerçevede çözüm üretme gerçeği ile karşı karşıya kalmıştır. Bu konuda zaman içinde ortaya çıkan farkındalık, Amerikan ıslah makamlarının kadınlara yönelik paradigma değişikliğine kapı aralamış ve bazı eyaletlerde kadın mahkumların ve ailelerinin ihtiyaçlarının daha saygın bir şekilde karşılanması, aile koruma programlarının başlatılmasını sağlamıştır. Bunun yanında annelerin çocuklarının fiziksel, duygusal ve psikolojik ihtiyaçlarına yanıt verebilmesi için eğitim programlarına alınması mahkum annelerin çocuk ve ergen yaşta olan çocukları ile normal ziyaret odasının dışında özel ve çocuk dostu odalarda oyunlar ve çeşitli etkinliklerle bir araya gelmesi, çocuğu olan mahkum annelere ebeveynlik eğitimlerine katılması halinde ilave ziyaret haklarının tanınması, bebek sahibi olan mahkumun 18 aya kadar özel bir bölümde bebeği ile birlikte yaşayabilmesine imkan sağlayan pek çok yeni programın başlatılmasını da sağlamıştır. Bu makalede özellikle 90’ların sonu ve 2000’lerin başında söz konusu paradigma değişikliği paralelinde başlangıçta ihmal edilen ama artan rakamlar ve ihtiyaçlar sebebi ile dikkate alınan kadın mahkumların ihtiyaçlarına özel olarak uygulanan bazı ulusal ve yerel ıslah çalışmaları ve projeler incelenmeye çalışılacaktır. Mahkumlara ihtiyaç durumuna göre sunulan klinik psikolojinin gerektirdiği tedaviler, tıbbi süreçler ile fiziksel ve mental tedavi yöntemleri kapsam alanımız dışındadır. Bu çalışmada daha çok ceza ıslah makamları, psikologlar, belediye ve kilise görevlileri, sosyal hizmet uzmanları ve gönüllülerin birlikte yürüttüğü kadın mahkumları özellikle de anne olan mahkumları destekleme amaçlı yapılan ve başarı sağlamış uygulamalara ve bu uygulamaların etkisi ve verimliliğine değinilecektir.

Keywords

• Mahkum kadınlar
• Aile koruma programları
• Artırılmış hapishane ziyaretleri
• Islah programları

References

1. Beck, Allen J. - Rantala, Ramona R. - Rexroat, Jessica. “Sexual Victimization Reported by Adult Correctional Authorities 2009-11”. Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004. http://www.bjs.gov NCJ 243904.
2. Belknap, Joanne. The Invisible Woman: Gender Crime, and Justice. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth 2001.
3. Bloom, Barbara - Owen, Barbara - Covington, Stephanie. Gender-Responsive Strategies: Research, Practice, And Guiding Principles For Women Offenders. Washington, DC: National Institute of Corrections, 2003.
4. Bronson, Jennifer - Carson, Ann. “Prisoners in 2007”. Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2019. http://www.bjs.gov NCJ 252156.
5. Boudin, Chesa - Stutz, Trevor -Littman, Aaron. “Prison Visitation Policies: A Fifty State Survey” . Access: 15 November 2018. http://ssrn.com/abstract=2171412.
6. Boudouris, James. Parents in Prison: Addressing the Needs of Families. Lanham :MD American Correctional Association,1996.
7. Clement, Mary Jeanette. “Parenting in Prison: A National Survey of Programs for Incarcerated Women”. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 19/1-2 (1993): 89-100.
8. Coleman, Elizabeth. Mothers Inside Loving Kids: An Evaluation Of A Parenting Support Program For Inmate Mothers, unpublished PhD thesis, University of Virginia, 2017.

9. Covington, Stephanie S. “Women in Prison Approaches in the Treatment of Our Most Invisible Population”. Women and Therapy Journal 21/1 (1998): 141-155.
10. Dart, Tom .“To End Mass Incarceration, Think Local”. The Wall Street Journal, May 30. Access: 9 August 2018. http://www.wsj.com/articles/ to-end-mass-incarceration-think-local- 1464642713.
11. Erisman, Wendy - Contardo, Jeanne Bayer. “Learning to Reduce Recidivism: A 50-State Analysis of Postsecondary Correctinal Education Policy”. National Institute for Higher Education Policy( November 2005): 27-37.
12. Faris, Jeralyn - Miller, Joann. “Family Matters: Perceptions of Fairness Among Incarcerated Women”. Prison Journal 90/ 2 (2010):139-160.
13. Fine, Michelle - Torre, Maria Elena - Boudin, Kathy - Bowen, Iris - Clark, Judith -Hylton , Donna - Martinez, Migdalia - Roberts, Rosemarie A. - Smart, Pamela - Upegui, Debora. Changing Minds The Impact Of College In A Maximum-Security Prison: Effects On Women in Prison, The Prison Environment, Reincarceration Rates And Post-Release Outcomes. NewYork: The Graduate Center of the City University of New York & Women in Prison at the Bedford Hills Correctional Facility, 2001.
14. Glaze, Lauren E. - Maruschak, Laura M. “ Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Parents in Prison and Their Minor Children”. Bureau of Justice Statistics , 2008. http://www.bjs.gov NCJ 222984.
15. Hairston, Creasie Finney. “Prisoners and Their Families: Parenting Issues During Incarceration”. Prisoners Once Removed: The Impact of Incarceration and Reentry on Children, Families and Communities. Ed. J. Travis - M. Waul. 260-282. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Inst. Press, 2003.
16. Harris, Alma. Building Upon The Razor Wire Women’s Program By Incorporating Experiential Therapy Interventions To Treat Addictions In Women In Prison. Ann Arbor : ProQuest LLC, 2016.
17. Houser, Kimberly - Belenko, Steven. “Disciplinary Response to Misconduct Among Female Prison Inmates with Mental Illness, Substance Use Disorders, and Co-Occurring Disorders”. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal 38/1 (2015): 24-34.
18. James, Doris J. - Glaze, Lauren E. “Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates”. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, 2006. http://www.bjs.gov. NCJ 213600.
19. Kajstura, Aleks. “Women’s Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2017”. Access:10.09.2018, https://prisonpolicy.org/report/pie2017women.html.
20. Keaveny, Mary E. - Zauszniewski, Jaclene A. “Life Events And Psychological Well-Being In Women Sentenced To Prison”. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 20/1 (1999): 73-89.
21. Loper, Ann Booker. “Adjustment Of Prison Of Women Convicted Of Possession, Trafficking, And Nondrug Offenses”. The Journal of Drug Issues 32 (2002): 22-26.
22. Mackenzie, Doris Layton - Souryal, Claire. “Inmates' Attitude Change during Incarceration: A Comparison of Boot Camp with Traditional Prison”. Justice Quarterly 12/2 (June 1995): 325-354.
23. Maruschak, Laura M. “Medical Problems of Jail Inmates”. Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report, 2006. http://www.bjs.gov NCJ 210696.
24. Minton, Todd D. - Zeng, Zhen. “Jail Inmates in 2015. U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs”. Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2018. http://www.bjs.gov NCJ 250394.
25. Morash, Merry - Bui, Hoan N. “The Impact of Network Relationships, Prison Experiences, and Internal Transformation on Women’s Success after Prison Release”. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation 49/1, ( December 2009) : 1-22.
26. Morash, Merry - Haarr, Robin - Rucker, Lila. “A Comparison Of Programming For Women And Men In U.S. Prisons Since The 1980s”. Crime and Delinquency 40/2 (1994):197-221.
27. Moses, Marilyn C. “Keeping incarcerated Mothers and Their Daughters Together: Girl Scouts Beyond Bars”. National Institute of Justice: Program Focus (1995): 3-10.
28. Parent, Dale G.“Correctional Boot Camps: Lessons From a Decade of Research”. National Institute of Justice, 2018. http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij .
29. Poehlmann, Julie - Dallaire, Danielle - Loper Ann Booker - Shear, Leslie D. “Children’s Contact with Their Incarcerated Parents: Research Findings and Recommendations”. American Psychologist 65/6 (2010): 575-598.
30. Pollock-Byrne, Joycelyn M. - Edna, Erez -Laster, Kathy. “Women, Prison, and Crime,” The Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology 82/ 4 (1992):1190-1194.
31. Pollock, Joycelyn M. Counseling Women in Prison. California: Sage Publications,1998.
32. Riley, Suzanne - Harner, Holly M. “The Impact of Incarceration on Women’s Mental Health: Responses from Women in a Maximum-Security Prison”. Qualitative Health Research 23/1 (2013): 26-42.
33. Sawyer, Wendy – Wagner, Peter. “ Mass Incarceration: The Whole Pie 2019”. Prison Policy Initiative. Access: 13 October 2019. https://www.prisonpolicy.org/reports/pie2019.html.
34. Steadman, Henry J. - Scott, Jack E. - Osher, Fred - Agnese, Tara K. - Robbins, Pamela C. “Validation of the Brief Jail Mental Health Screen”. Psychiatric Services 56 /7 (2005): 816-822.
35. Stephan, James. “State Prison Expenditures 2001”. Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2004. http://www.bjs.gov.
36. Stumbo, Norma J. &Little, Sandra. “Campgrounds Offer Relaxed Setting For Children’s Visitation Program”. Corrections Today (1991, August): 136-144.
37. Soltes, Fiona. “ Girls Scouts Beyond Bars Providing a Better Path”. Office of Juvenile Justice and Deliquency Prevention (2012):1-15.
38. Swavola, Elizabeth - Riley, Kristi - Subramanian Ram. Overlooked: Women and Jails in an Era of Reform. New York: Vera Institute of Justice 6, 2016. Trestman, Robert L. - Ford, Julian - Zhang, Wanli - Wiesbrock, Valerie. “Current and Lifetime Psychiatric Illness Among Inmates Not Identified as Acutely Mentally Ill at Intake in Connecticut’s Jails”. Journal of the American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law 35 /4 (2007): 490-500.
39. United States Census Bureau. Access: 13 October 2019, http:// www.census.gov.
40. Van Voorhis, Patricia - Braswell, Michael - Lester, David. Correctional Counselling and Rehabilitation. Cincinnati, OH: Anderson, 1992.
41. Zust, Barbara L. “Partner Violence, Depression, and Recidivism: The Case of Incarcerated Women and Why We Need Programs Designed for Them”. Issues in Mental Health Nursing 30/4 (2009): 246-251.