Improving the Mechanical Properties of Cast Materials Through Computer-Aided Design and Process Optimization

Abstract

Scientific and technical research conducted to improve the mechanical properties of widely used steel materials also leads to increased costs. Therefore, previous studies about the cast irons have been guiding companies' R&D efforts in today's competitive environment. To increase the tensile strength, percent elongation, and impact strength of spheroidal graphite cast irons with a ferritic microstructure to those of steel materials, special processes must be applied. This article presents studies resulting from a detailed examination of a very large data bank concerning two critical issues in design and application. The first stage describes computer-aided design and simulation activities related to design improvement, cost reduction, and enhancement of mechanical strength. The second stage examines academic and technical approaches to metallurgical processes in production processes without requiring special heat treatment. For this purpose, spheroidal graphite ferritic cast iron material, commonly used in the EN-GJS 400-18 LT standard, was selected, and the processes were described in detail. Materials meeting the GGG 40 standard were subjected to special heat treatments to improve their properties, leading to the standard being named GGG 40.3. As a result of the study, materials meeting the requirements of the GGG 40.3 standard can be produced without any additional processing, especially heat treatment.

Keywords

• Casting
• Controlled Cooling
• Cost Reduction
• Metallurgical Process Control

Bilgisayar Destekli Tasarım ve Süreç Optimizasyonu ile Döküm Malzemenin Mekanik Özelliklerinin Geliştirilmesi

Abstract

Yaygın olarak kullanılan çelik malzemelerin mekanik özelliklerinin geliştirilmesi için yapılan bilimsel ve teknik araştırmalar maliyetlerin de yükselmesini beraberinde getimektedir. Bu sebeple eski ancak halen yaygın olan dökme demirler üzerinde yapılan çalışmalar günümüzün rekabetçi koşullarında firmaların Ar-Ge çalışmalarına yön vermektedir. Ferritik mikroyapıdaki küresel grafitli dökme demirlerin çekme mukavemeti, yüzde uzama ve darbe dayanımını çelik malzemelerin sağladığı değerlere yükseltmek için bazı özel proseslerin uıygulanması gerekmektedir. Bu makale, önce tasarım sonra da uygulamadaki iki kritik konuya ait çok büyük bir veri bankasının detaylı olarak ele alınması neticesindeki çalışmaları içermektedir. Birinci aşamada, tasarım geliştirme ile maliyet düşürme ve mekanik mukavemetin geliştirilmesine ait bilgisayar destekli tasarım ve simülasyon faaliyetleri aktarılmıştır. İkinci aşamada ise özel ısıl işlem gerektirmeden üretim süreçlerindeki metalurjik işlemlere yönelik akademik ve teknik yaklaşımları incelenmiştir. Bu amaçla, yaygın olarak kullanılan EN-GJS 400-18 LT standardında küresel grafitli ferritik dökme demir malzeme seçilmiş ve işlemler ayrıntılı olarak açıklanmıştır. GGG 40 standardını karşılayan malzemeler, özelliklerini iyileştirmek için özel ısıl işlemlere tabi tutulmakta ve bu da standardın GGG 40.3 olarak adlandırılmasına yol açmaktadır. Çalışmanın sonucu olarak, özellikle ısıl işlem olmak üzere herhangi bir ek işleme gerek kalmadan GGG 40.3 standardının gereksinimlerini karşılayan malzemeler üretilebilmektedir.

Keywords

• Döküm
• Kontrollü Soğutma
• Maliyet Düşürme
• Metalurjik Proses Kontrolü

References

1. Stefanescu DM. A history of cast iron. In: Cast iron science and technology. ASM International; 2017, p. 3-11. doi:10.1361/asmhba0001001.
2. Campbell J. A hypothesis for cast iron microstructures. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions B 2009;40(6):786-801. doi:10.1007/s11663-009-9289-0.
3. Akinribide OJ, Ogundare OD, Oluwafemi OM, Ebisike K, Nageri AK, Akinwamide SO, et al. A review on heat treatment of cast iron: phase evolution and mechanical characterization. Materials 2022;15(20):7109. doi:10.3390/ma15207109.
4. Tewary U, Paul D, Mehtani HK, Bhagavath S, Alankar A, Mohapatra G, et al. The origin of graphite morphology in cast iron. Acta Materialia 2022;226:117660. doi:10.1016/j.actamat.2022.117660.
5. Ouyang C, Wang R, Zhao C, Wei R, Li H, Deng R, et al. Multi-layer laser cladding analysis and high-temperature oxidative wear behavior of cast iron with a low expansion coefficient. Surface and Coatings Technology 2023;474:130079. doi:10.1016/j.surfcoat.2023.130079.
6. Ning H, Li X, Meng L, Jiang A, Ya B, Ji S, et al. Effect of Ni and Mo on microstructure and mechanical properties of grey cast iron. Materials Technology 2023;38(1):2172991. doi:10.1080/10667857.2023.2172991.
7. Ibrahim M. An overview on Thin Wall cast iron castings and its applications in automotive industry. International Journal of Materials Technology and Innovation 2023;3(1):57-69. doi:10.21608/IJMTI.2022.153909.1056.
8. Zhao N, Li DQ, Gu SX, Du W. Analytical fragility relation for buried cast iron pipelines with lead-caulked joints based on machine learning algorithms. Earthquake Spectra 2024;40(1):566-583. doi:10.1177/87552930231209195.

9. Twardowski P, Czyżycki J, Felusiak-Czyryca A, Tabaszewski M, Wiciak-Pikuła M. Monitoring and forecasting of tool wear based on measurements of vibration accelerations during cast iron milling. Journal of Manufacturing Processes 2023;95:342-350. doi:10.1016/j.jmapro.2023.04.036.
10. Fathollahzadeh K, Saeedi M, Anaraki MG, Rabiee M. Sustainable cast iron supply chain network design: robust multi-objective optimization with scenario reduction via genetic algorithm. International Journal of Production Economics 2025:109730. doi:10.1016/j.ijpe.2025.109730.
11. Vasudev H, Thakur L, Singh H, Bansal A. Erosion behaviour of HVOF sprayed Alloy718-nano Al2O3 composite coatings on grey cast iron at elevated temperature conditions. Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties 2021;9(3):035022. doi:10.1088/2051-672X/ac1c80.
12. Nodir T, Nosir S, Shirinkhon T, Erkin K, Azizakhon T, Mukhammadali A. Development of technology to increase resistance of high chromium cast iron. The American Journal of Engineering and Technology 2021;3(3):85-92. doi:10.37547/tajet/Volume03Issue03-14.
13. Öztürk B, Kara F. Multi-objective optimization of machinability and energy consumption of cast iron depending on cooling rate. Machines 2025;13(2):84. doi:10.3390/machines13020084.
14. Srivastava S, Singh P, Pandey AK, Dixit CK. Analysis of Gruneisen parameter for carbides and bromides in cast iron. Iranian Journal of Science 2024;48(2):479-486. doi:10.1007/s40995-024-01602-2.
15. Zhao Z, Li Y, Zheng Q, Yi D, Cheng H, Zhang S. Revealing the mechanism of abruptly dropping of the wetting angle for the cast iron and zirconia ceramic system. Materials & Design 2024;244:113232. doi:10.1016/j.matdes.2024.113232.
16. Abdelshafy A, Franzen D, Mohaupt A, Schüssler J, Bührig-Polaczek A, Walther G. A feasibility study to minimize the carbon footprint of cast iron production while maintaining the technical requirements. Journal of Sustainable Metallurgy 2023;9(1):249-265. doi:10.1007/s40831-022-00642-5.
17. Wu S, Wang D, Tao X, Wang X, Zhang R, Zhou Z, et al. Normalizing temperature influence on the microstructure characteristics, mechanical and wear performance of a novel high chromium cast iron. Tribology International 2025;202:110327. doi:10.1016/j.triboint.2024.110327.
18. Feng A, Wei Y, Liu B, Chen C, Pan X, Xue J. Microstructure and mechanical properties of composite strengthened high-chromium cast iron by laser quenching and laser shock peening. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 2022;20:4342-4355. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2022.08.148.
19. El Khatib O, Pham RD, Hütter G, Henkel S, Zybell L, Morgeneyer TF, et al. Experimental and numerical investigations on the influence of crack-tip constraint on the ductile fracture behavior in nodular cast iron. Engineering Fracture Mechanics 2025;315:110773. doi:10.1016/j.engfracmech.2024.110773.
20. Rakhimov UT, Tursunov NK, Tursunov SE. Improvement of production technology for spheroidal graphite cast iron with increased strength. In: AIP Conference Proceedings. AIP Publishing; 2024. doi:10.1063/5.0197475.
21. Xu L, Wang F, Li M, Li F, Wang X, Jiang T, et al. Fabrication and abrasive wear property of high chromium cast iron with high vanadium and high nitrogen content (HCCI-VN). Wear 2023;523:204828. doi:10.1016/j.wear.2023.204828.
22. Gong L, Fu H, Yang P, Ji X, Yin W, Lin J. Refinement of primary carbides and improvement of wear resistance of hypereutectic high chromium cast iron after modification. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 2023;24:5724-5742. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2023.04.176.
23. Reza Kashyzadeh K, Souri K, Gharehsheikh Bayat A, Safavi Jabalbarez R, Ahmad M. Fatigue life analysis of automotive cast iron knuckle under constant and variable amplitude loading conditions. Applied Mechanics 2022;3(2):517-532. doi:10.3390/applmech3020030.
24. Purba RH, Shimizu K, Kusumoto K, Gaqi Y, Todaka T. Effect of boron addition on three-body abrasive wear characteristics of high chromium based multi-component white cast iron. Materials Chemistry and Physics 2022;275:125232. doi:10.1016/j.matchemphys.2021.125232.
25. Cai Y, Wang Z, Tang Y, Xu C, Song Y, Dong K, et al. Corrosion fatigue behavior of cast iron in simulated combustion product solutions of ammonia and methanol fuels. International Journal of Fatigue 2025;191:108715. doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2024.108715.
26. Liu J, Wang B, Chen T, Hao L, Wu J, Liu C. The Effect of Corrosion Inhibitors on the Corrosion Behavior of Ductile Cast Iron. Metals 2025;15(1):70. doi:10.3390/met15010070.
27. Pedranz M, Fontanari V, Raghavendra S, Santus C, Zanini F, Carmignato S, et al. A new energy based highly stressed volume concept to investigate the notch-pores interaction in thick-walled ductile cast iron subjected to uniaxial fatigue. International Journal of Fatigue 2023;169:107491. doi:10.1016/j.ijfatigue.2022.107491.
28. Futas P, Pribulova A, Petrik J, Blasko P, Junakova A, Sabik V. Metallurgical quality of cast iron made from steel scrap and possibilities of its improvement. Metals 2022;13(1):27. doi:10.3390/met13010027.
29. He Y, Mao F, Gao A, Pan K, Guo A, Liu S, et al. The influence of trace vanadium on the solidification process, microstructure, and mechanical properties of gray cast iron. Journal of Materials Research and Technology 2024;31:998-1007. doi:10.1016/j.jmrt.2024.06.103.
30. Li XC, Pang M. Research of the properties of the sandwich-structured Ni60CuMo self-lubricating coating with stepped hardness distribution on Vermicular cast iron by laser cladding. Materials Today Communications 2024;40:110130. doi:10.1016/j.mtcomm.2024.110130.
31. Woodward RG, Toumpis A, Galloway A. The influence of tempering and annealing on the microstructure and sliding wear response of G350 grey cast iron. Wear 2022;496:204283. doi:10.1016/j.wear.2022.204283.
32. Dyrlaga Ł, Zapała R, Morgiel K, Studnicki A, Szczęsny A, Kopyciński D. Evaluation of microstructure and abrasive wear-resistance of medium alloy SiMo ductile cast iron. Materials 2024;17(5):1223. doi:10.3390/ma17051223.
33. Wang P, Jing P. Deep learning-based methods for detecting defects in cast iron parts and surfaces. IET Image Processing 2024;18(1):47-58. doi:10.1049/ipr2.12932.
34. Chen Z, Guo Q, Fu H, Zhi X. Effect of heat treatment on microstructure and properties of modified hypereutectic high chromium cast iron. Materials Testing 2022;64(1):33-54. doi:10.14158/j.cnki.1001-3814.2015.10.064.
35. Tonkovič Prijanovič M, Mrvar P, Burja J, Donik Č, Petrič M. Study on dissolution of Ba-containing inoculant in ductile cast iron melt and nucleation of graphite. International Journal of Metalcasting 2024;18(4):2985-2995. doi:10.1007/s40962-023-01215-2.