THE IMPORTANCE OF INFODEMIC LITERACY AND AN ARGUMENTATIVE APPROACH ON ITS ROLE IN OUTBREAK COMMUNICATION MANAGEMENT

Abstract

Recent history has witnessed a major infodemic characterized by an overflow of information, some of which is accurate and some is false, that emerged during a pandemic and rapidly spread across digital and physical environments, making it difficult for people to access reliable sources of information when needed. To effectively combat infodemic, individuals need to have a range of competencies and skills such as health literacy, media literacy and science literacy. "Infodemic literacy", which refers to a mixed level of competence that includes different literacy skills, has a scope to respond to this requirement. The concept of infodemic literacy is very new, and the literature on this concept is still not diverse. Therefore, this study aims to explain the importance of infodemic literacy in the context of past literature on the benefits of other literacy competencies it is based on; it also seeks to discuss the individual and societal contributions that infodemic literacy can offer to epidemic management and communication processes. Applying the argumentative research method, the article concludes that infodemic literacy plays important roles in controlling outbreaks, protecting and promoting health, combating psychological difficulties, discrimination and stigmatization during outbreak processes, developing individual and social resilience, protecting against information irregularities, accessing accurate information sources, confirming information, increasing social mobilization and community participation. This study is the first to discuss the importance of infodemic literacy, a concept newly introduced to the literature. The significance and originality of this article are highlighted because it will serve as a foundation for future research on infodemic literacy.

Keywords

• Infodemic
• Infodemic Literacy
• Outbreak Management
• Outbreak Communication

İNFODEMİ OKURYAZARLIĞININ ÖNEMİ VE SALGIN İLETİŞİMİ YÖNETİMİNDEKİ ROLÜ ÜZERİNE ARGÜMANTATİF BİR YAKLAŞIM

Abstract

Yakın geçmiş, bir salgın sırasında ortaya çıkan, dijital ve fiziksel ortamlarda hızla yayılarak insanların ihtiyaç duyduğunda güvenilir bilgi kaynaklarına erişimini zorlaştıran, bazıları doğru, bazıları ise yanlış içeriklerden oluşan bilgi bolluğu olarak ifade edilen büyük bir infodemiye tanık olmuştur. İnfodemiyle etkin bir şekilde mücadele edebilmek için bireylerin, sağlık okuryazarlığı, medya okuryazarlığı ve bilim okuryazarlığı gibi bir dizi yeterliliğe sahip olması gerektiği vurgulanmaktadır. Belirtilen okuryazarlık becerilerini ve daha fazlasını içeren karma bir yeterlilik düzeyini ifade eden “infodemi okuryazarlığı” ise belirtilen bu gerekliliğe cevap verecek bütüncül bir kapsama sahiptir. İnfodemi okuryazarlığı kavramı çok yenidir ve bu kavrama dair literatür henüz çeşitlenmemiştir. Bu nedenle bu çalışma infodemi okuryazarlığının önemini, temel aldığı diğer okuryazarlık yeterliliklerinin faydalarına yönelik geçmiş literatür bağlamında açıklamayı amaçlamakta; infodemi okuryazarlığının salgın yönetimi ve salgın iletişimi sürecine sunabileceği bireysel ve toplumsal katkıyı tartışmayı hedeflemektedir. Argümantatif araştırma metodunun uygulandığı çalışmada sonuç olarak, infodemi okuryazarlığının salgınları kontrol altına almada, sağlığın korunması ve geliştirilmesinde, salgın süreçlerinde psikolojik zorluklarla, ayrımcılıkla ve damgalama ile mücadele etmede, bireysel ve sosyal dayanıklılığın geliştirilmesinde, bilgi düzensizliklerinden korunmada, doğru bilgi kaynaklarına ulaşmada, bilgiyi teyit etmede, sosyal mobilizasyon ve topluluk katılımının artırılmasında önemli roller üstlendiği çıkarımına varılmaktadır. Bu çalışma, literatüre yeni kazandırılan bir kavram olan infodemi okuryazarlığının önemini tartışan ilk çalışmadır. İnfodemi okuryazarlığı ile ilgili gelecekte yapılacak olan çalışmalara temel sağlayacak olması bu makalenin önemini ve özgünlüğünü ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• İnfodemi
• İnfodemi Okuryazarlığı
• Salgın Yönetimi
• Salgın İletişimi.

References

1. Abraham, T. (2009). Risk and outbreak communication: Lesson from alternative paradigms. Bull World Health Organ, 87, 604-607. https://doi.org/10.2471/BLT.08.058149.
2. Abraham, T. (2011). Lesson from the pandemic: The need for new tools for risk and outbreak communication. Emerging Health Journal, 4 (1), https://doi.org/10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7160.
3. Adıyaman, F. (2022). Hakikat ötesi çağda profesyonel bilgi doğrulayıcılığı kimliği. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 21 (3), 1312-1328. https://doi.org/10.21547/jss.1059384.
4. Akyüz, S.S., Gülnar, B., & Kazaz, M. (2021). Yeni medyada haber güvenilirliği sorunu: Üniversite öğrencilerinin sahte/yalan haberlere yönelik doğrulama refleksleri. OPUS Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 17 (36), 2816-2840. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.838464.
5. Anwar, A., Malik, M., Raees, V., & Anwar, A. (2020). Role of mass media and public health communications in the COVID-19 pandemic. Cureus, 12 (9). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.10453.
6. Ayani, N., Matsuoka, T., Yamano, S., & Narumoto, J. (2021). Depression relapse during long-term remission due to media-amplified fear during the COVID-19 pandemic. Case Reports in Psychiatry, 2021, 5682611. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5682611.
7. Bagcchi, S. (2020). Stigma during the COVID-19 pandemic. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 20 (7), 782. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30498-9.
8. Baines, D., & Elliot, R. J. R. (2020). Defining misinformation, disinformation and malinformation: An urgent need for clarity during the Covid-19 infodemic. Discussion Papers, 20 (6).

9. Bak, C.K., Krammer, J.Ø., Dadaczynski, K., Orkan, O., von Seelen, J., Prinds, C., Søbjerg, L.M., & Klakk, H. (2022). Digital health literacy and information-seeking behavior among university college students during the COVID-19 pandemic: A cross-sectional study from denmark. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (6). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063676.
10. Bas-Sarmiento, P., Lamas-Toranzo, M.J., Fernandez-Gutiérrez, M., & Pza-Méndez, M. (2022). Health literacy, misinformation, self-perceived risk and fear, and preventive measures related to COVID-19 in spanish university students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (22). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192215370.
11. Başterzi, A.D., Cesur, E., Rengün Güvenç, H., Taşdelen, R., & Yılmaz, T. (2020). Covid-19 ve damgalanma. TTB COVID-19 Pandemisi 6. Ay Değerlendirme Raporu. https://www.ttb.org.tr/745yi8s, (Erişim Tarihi: 03.07.2022).
12. Bhanot, D., Singh, T., Verma, S.K., & Sharad, S. (2020). Stigma and discrimination during COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 8: 577018. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.577018.
13. Bheekhun, Z., Lee, G., & Camporesi, S. (2021). Challenges of an 'infodemic': Separating fact from fiction in a pandemic. International Emergency Nursing, 57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ienj.2021.101029.
14. Biasio, L.R., Bonaccorsi, G., Lorini, C., & Pecorelli, S. (2021). Assesing COVID-19 vaccine literacy: A preliminary online survey. Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics, 17 (5), 1304-1312. https://doi.org/10.1080/21645515.2020.1829315.
15. Bin Naeem, S., & Kamel Boulos, M.N. (2021). COVID-19 Misinformation online and health literacy: A brief overwiev. International Journal of Environmetal Research and Public Health, 18, 8091. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18158091.
16. Brandtzaeg, P.B., Lüders, M., Spangenberg, J., Rath-Wiggins, L., & Følstad, A. (2016). Emerging journalistic verification practices concerning social media. Journalism Practice, 10 (3), 323-342. https://doi.org/10.1080/17512786.2015.1020331.
17. Briand, S.C., Cinell, M., Nguyen, T., Lewis, R., Prybylski, Valensise, C.M., Colizza, V., Tozzi, A.E., Perra, N., Baronchelli, A., Tizzoni, M., Zollo, F., Scala, A., Purnat, T., Czerniak, C., Kucharski, A.J., Zhou, A.T.L., & Quattrociocchi, W. (2021). Infodemics: A new challenge for public health. Cell, 184 (25), 6010-6014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2021.10.031.
18. Broucke, S.V. (2020). Why health promotion matters to the COVID-19 pandemic, and vice versa. Health Promotion International, 35 (2), 181-186. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daaa042.
19. Brug, J., Aro, A.R., Oenema, A., Zwart, O., Richardus, J.H., & Bishop, G.D. (2004). SARS risk perception, knowledge, precautions, and information sources, the netherlands. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 10(8), 1486-1489. https://doi.org/doi.org/10.3201/eid1008.040283.
20. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2018). CERC: Crisis + emergency risk communication – messages and audiences. https://emergency.cdc.gov/cerc/ppt/CERC_Messages_and_Audiences.pdf, (Erişim Tarihi: 20.03.2023).
21. Chen, S.C., Huy, L.D., Lin, C.Y., Lai, C.F., Nguyen, N.T.H., Hoang, N.Y., Nguyen, T.T.P., Loan T.D., Truong, N.L.T., Phan, T.N., & Duong, T.V. (2022). Association of digital health literacy with future anxiety as mediated by information satisfaction and fear of COVID-19: A pathway analysis among taiwanese students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19, 15617. https://doi.org/ 10.3390/ ijerph192315617.
22. Cheng, C., Lau, Y.C., & Luk, J.W. (2020). Social capital–accrual, escape-from-self, and time-displacement effects of internet use during the COVID-19 stay-at-home period: Prospective, quantitative survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 22 (12). https://doi.org/10.2196/22740.
23. Cheng, J.W., & Nishikawa, M. (2022). Effects of health literacy in the fight against the COVID-19 infodemic: The case of japan. Health Communication, 37 (12), 1520-1533. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2022.2065745.
24. Chong, Y.Y., Cheng, H.Y., Chan, H.Y.L., Chien, W.T., & Wong, S.Y.S. (2020). COVID-19 pandemic, infodemic and the role of eHealth literacy. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 108 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2020.103644.
25. Chopra, K.K., & Arora, V. (2020). Covid-19 and social stigma: Role of scientific community. Indian Journal of Tuberculosis. 67 (3), 284-285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijtb.2020.07.012.
26. Choukou, M.A., Sanchez-Ramirez, D.C., Pol, M., Uddin, M., Monnin, C., & Syed-Abdul, S. (2022). COVID-19 infodemic and digital health literacy in vulnerable populations: A scoping review. Digital Health, 8 (Jan-Dec 2022). https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076221076927.
27. Coates, E.A., Waisbord, S., Awale, J., Solomon, R., & Dey, R. (2013). Succassful polio eradication in Uttar Pradesh, India: The pivotal contribution of the social mobilization network, an NGO/UNICEF collaboration. https://www.comminit.com/global/content/successful-polio-eradication-uttar-pradesh-india-pivotal-contribution-social-mobilizatio (Erişim Tarihi: 04.09.2024).
28. Corbin, J.H., Oyene, U.E., Manoncourt, E., Onya, H., Kwamboka, M., Amuyunzu-Nyamongo, M., Sørensen, K., Mweemba, O., Barry, M.M., Munodawafa, D., Bayugo, Y.V., Huda, Q., Moran, T., Omoleke, S.A., Spencer-Walters, D., & Broucke, S.V. (2021). A health promotion approach to emergency management: Effective community engagement strategies from five cases. Health Promotion International, 36. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab152.
29. Croucher, S.M., Nguyen, T., & Rahmani, D. (2020). Prejudise toward asian americans in the COVID-19 pandemic: The effects of social media use in the united states. Frontiers in Communication, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomm.2020.00039.
30. Çağlayan, S. (2023). İnfodemi okuryazarlığının salgın iletişimi yönetimindeki rolü: İnfodemi okuryazarlığı ölçek geliştirme çalışması (Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi). Kocaeli Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Kocaeli.
31. Çömlekçi, M.F. (2019). Sosyal medyada dezenformasyon ve haber doğrulama platformlarının pratikleri. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 7 (3), 1549 – 1563. https://doi.org/10.19145/e-gifder.583825.
32. Çömlekçi, M.F. & Bozkanat, E. (2021). İnfodemide dijital ortamda sağlık bilgisi edinme ve teyit davranışları. İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyoloji Dergisi, 41 (1), 103-125. https://doi.org/10.26650/SJ.2021.41.1.0024.
33. Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., Messer, M., Leung, A.Y.M., Rosário, R., Darlington, E., & Rathmann, K. (2021). Digital health literacy and web-based information-seeking behaviors of university students in germany during the COVID-19 pandemic: Cross-sectional survey study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23 (1). https://doi.org/10.2196/24097.
34. Dash, S., Parray, A.A., Freitas, L.D., Mithu, I.H., Rahman, M., Ramasamy, A., & Kumar Pandya, A. (2021). Combating the COVID-19 infodemic: A three-level approach for low and middle-income countries. BMJ Global Health, 6. https://doi.org/10.1136/ bmjgh-2020-004671.
35. De Coninck, D., Frissen, T., Matthijs, K., d'Haenens, L., Lits, G., Champagne-Poirier, O., Carignan, M., David, M.D., Pignard-Cheynel, N., Salerno, S., & Généreux, M. (2021). Beliefs in conspiracy theories and misinformation about COVID-19: comparative perspectives on the role of anxiety, depression and exposure to and trust in information sources. Frontiers in Psychology, 12. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.646394.
36. De Gani, S.M., Berger, F.M.P., Guggiari, E., & Jaks, R. (2022). Relation of corona-specific health literacy to use of and trust in information sources during the COVID-19 pandemic. BMC Public Health, 22 (1), 42. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-12271-w.
37. de Guzman, A.B., de Castro, B.V., Laguilles-Villafuerte, S., Clemente-Faustino, J.A., Serrano, J.O., & Angcahan, D.Z. (2022). Portrait of filipino healthcare workers' discrimination experiences during the early part of the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Medical Imaging and Radiation Science, 53 (3), 396-403. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmir.2022.06.001.
38. Della Salda, A., Musa, R., Mereu, A., Sardu, C., & Contu, P. (2022). Literacy in the time of coronavirus: An italian perspective: value of literacy in the context of a pandemic. Ann IG, 34 (2), 109-121. https://doi.org/10.7416/ai.2022.2473.
39. Devakumar, D., Shannon, G., Bhopal, S.S., & Abubakar, I. (2020). Racism and discrimination in COVID-19 responses. Lancet, 395 (10231). https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30792-3.
40. Djalante, R., Shaw, R., & DeWit, A. (2020). Building resilience against biological hazards and pandemics: COVID-19 and its implications for the sendai framework. Progress in Disaster Science, 6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2020.100080.
41. Douglas, K.M. (2021). Are conspiracy theories harmless?. The Spanish Journal of Psychology, 24. https://doi.org/10.1017/SJP.2021.10.
42. Dow, B.J., Johnson, A.L., Wang, C.S., Whitson, J., & Menon, T. (2021). The COVID-19 pandemic and the search for structure: Social media and conspiracy theories. Social and Personality Psychology Compas, 15 (9) https://doi.org/10.1111/spc3.12636.
43. Drazich, B.F., Nyikadzino, Y., & Gleason, K.T. (2021). A program to improve digital access and literacy among community stakeholders: Cohort study. JMIR Formative Research, 5 (11). https://doi.org/10.2196/30605.
44. Druss, B.G. (2020). Addressing the COVID-19 pandemic in populations with serious mental illness. JAMA Psychiatry, 77 (9), 891-892. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2020.0894.
45. Duplaga, M. (2022) The roles of health and e-health literacy, conspiracy beliefs and political sympathy in the adherence to preventive measures recommended during the pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (14), 8346. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19148346.
46. Dutta, B., Peng, M.H., Chen, C.C., & Sun, S.L. (2022). Role of infodemics on social media in the development of people's readiness to follow COVID-19 preventive measures. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (3). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19031347.
47. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2009). Intercountry meeting on outbreak communication: The goal, strategies, controversies, evidence and experience, amman, jordan, (March 2007/WHO-EM/CSR/024/E) https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/115987/who_em_csr_024_e_en.pdf?sequence=1, (Erişim Tarihi: 23.02.2022).
48. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020a). Managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Promoting healthy behaviours and mitigating the harm from misinformation and disinformation. https://www.who.int/news/item/23-09-2020-managing-the-covid-19-infodemic-promoting-healthy-behaviours-and-mitigating-the-harm-from-misinformation-and-disinformation, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.07.2021).
49. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020b), Call for action: Managing the infodemic. https://www.who.int/news/item/11-12-2020-call-for-action-managing-the-infodemic, (Erişim Tarihi: 06.07.2021).
50. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020c). Let’s flatten the infodemic curve. https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/let-s-flatten-the-infodemic-curve, (Erişim Tarihi: 06.07.2021).
51. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020d). Infodemic management. https://www.who.int/teams/risk-communication/infodemic-management, ((Erişim Tarihi: 15.07.2021).
52. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020e). Infodemic. 7 Temmuz 2021 tarihinde https://www.who.int/health-topics/infodemic#tab=tab_1, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.07.2021).
53. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020f). Subject in focus: Providing timely and accurate information to dispel the infodemic. (Coronavirus Disease 2019 (Covid-19) Situation Report – 86). https://www.who.int/docs/default-source/coronaviruse/situation-reports/20200415-sitrep-86-covid-19.pdf?sfvrsn=c615ea20_6. (Erişim Tarihi: 07.07.2021).
54. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2020g). An ad hoc WHO technical consultation managing the COVID-19 infodemic: Call for action, Geneva. https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/334287/9789240010314-eng.pdf?sequence=1, (Erişim Tarihi: 07.07.2021).
55. Dünya Sağlık Örgütü (2021). WHO public health research agenda for managing infodemics. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/339192, (Erişim Tarihi: 06.07.2021).
56. Ertem, M. (2020). Covid-19 pandemisi ve sosyal damgalama. İzmir Katip Çelebi Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 5 (2), s.135-138.
57. European Centre For Disease Prevention And Control (t.y.). Risk and outbreak communication. https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/health-communication/risk-communication, (19.02.2023).
58. Fan, C.A., Hara-Hubbard, K.K., Barrington, W.E., & Baquero, B. (2022). The experience of hate incidents across racial and ethnic groups during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.982029.
59. Feinberg, I.Z., Owen-Smith, A., O'Connor, M.H., Ogrodnick, M.M., Rothenberg, R., & Eriksen, M. (2021). Strengthening culturally competent health communication. Health Security,19 (S1), S41-S49. https://doi.org/10.1089/hs.2021.0048.
60. Feinberg, I., Scott, J.Y., Holland, D.P., Lyn, R., Scott, L.C., Maloney, K.M., & Rothenberg, R. (2022). The relationship between health literacy and COVID-19 vaccination prevalence during a rapidly evolving pandemic and infodemic. Vaccines, 10. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10121989.
61. Ferraz, S. (2023). Risk communication and community engagement on for health emergencies: Pratical aspects. https://www.paho.org/en/documents/risk-communication-and-community-engagement-health-emergencies-practical-aspects-0, (Erişim Tarihi: 25.02.2023).
62. Ferreira, S., Campos, C., Marinho, B., Rocha, S., Fonseca-Pedrero, E., & Rocha, N.B. (2021). What drives beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories? The role of psychotic-like experiences and confinement-related factors. Social Science & Medicine, 292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114611.
63. Friedman, D.B., Rose, I.D., & Koskan, A. (2011). Pilot assessment of an experiential disaster communication curriculum. Disaster Prevention and Management, 20 (3), 238-250. https://doi.org/10.1108/09653561111141691.
64. Fujii, D., Fujimura, M.S., Ong, K.I.C., & Jimba, M. (2022). Cutting the chain of discrimination during COVID-19 pandemic by health literacy. JMA Journal, 5 (4), 535-538. https://doi.org/10.31662/jmaj.2022-0073.
65. Gala, B., Islam, A., Gamage, R., & Kumar Agarwal, N. (2022). Health information crisis during COVID-19 in the south asian region: Challenges, experiences, resilience, and collaborative efforts. Proceeding of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 59 (1), 570-574. https://doi.org/10.1002/pra2.629.
66. Gangireddy, R., Chakraborty, S., Pakenham-Wals, N., Nagarajan, B., Krishan, P., McGuire, R., Vaghela, G., & Sriharan, A. (2022). Themes surrounding COVID-19 and its infodemic: Qualitative analysis of the COVID-19 discussion on the multidisciplinary helathcare information for all health forum. JMIR Infodemiology, 2 (1), e30167. https://doi.org/10.2196/30167.
67. Gao, J., Zheng, P., Jia, Y., Chen, H., Mao, Y., Chen, S., Wang, Y., Fu, H., & Dai, J. (2020). Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. PLOS One, 15 (4), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231924.
68. Gao, Z. (2022). Sinophobia during the Covid-19 pandemic: Identity, belonging, and international politics. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science, 56 (2), 472-490. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12124-021-09659-z.
69. Geçer, E. (2020), Salgın hastalıklar, kültürel psikoloji ve politika: Yerel bir yaklaşım. Çukurova Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 29 (3), 550-567. https://doi.org/10.35379/cusosbil.750289.
70. Goffman, E. (1986). Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled Identity. London: Simon & Schuster.
71. Gölbaşı, S.D., & Metintaş, S. (2020). COVID-19 pandemisi ve infodemi. ESTÜDAM Halk Sağlığı Dergisi, 2020 (COVID-19 Özel Sayısı), 126-137. https://doi.org/10.35232/estudamhsd.797508.
72. Gronholm, P.C., Nosé, M., van Brakel, W.H., Eaton, J., Ebenso, B., Fiekert, K., Milenova, M., Sunkel, C., Barbui, C., & Thornicroft, G. (2021). Reducing stigma and discrimination associated with COVID-19: Early stage pandemic rapid review and practical recommendations. Epidemiology and Psychiatric Sciences, 30. https://doi.org/10.1017/S2045796021000056.
73. Gu, C., & Feng, Y. (2022). Influence of public engagement with science on scientific information literacy during the COVID-19 pandemic: Empirical evidence from collage students in china. Science & Education, 31 (619), 619-633. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11191-021-00261-8.
74. Habermas, J. (2019). İletişimsel eylem kuramı. (Çev. M. Tüzel). İstanbul: Alfa.
75. Hassankhani, M., Alidadi, M., Sharifi, A., & Azhdari, A. (2021). Smart city and crisis management: Lessons for the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 (15). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18157736.
76. Heath, C., Sommerfield, A., & von Ungern-Sternberg, B. S. (2020). Resilience strategies to manage psychological distress among healthcare workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A narrative review. Anaesthesia, 75, 1364-1371. https://doi.org/10.1111/anae.15180.
77. Herrman, H., Stewart, D.E., Yuen, T., Diaz-Granadoz, N., Berger, E., & Jackson, B. (2011). What is resilience? La Revue Canadienne de Psychiatrie, 56 (5), 258-265. https://doi.org/10.1177/070674371105600504.
78. Himelboim, I., Xiao, X., Lee, D.K.L., Wang, M.Y., & Borah, P. (2019). A social networks approach to understanding vaccine conversation on twitter: Network clusters, sentiment, and certainty in HPV social networks. Health Communication, 35 (5), 607-615. https://doi.org/10.1080/10410236.2019.1573446.
79. Ho, C.S., Cornelia, Y.C., & Roger C.H. (2020). Mental health strategies to combat the psychological impact of COVID-19 beyond paranoia and panic. Annals of the Academy of Medicine, 49 (1), 1-3. https://doi.org/10.47102/annals-acadmedsg.202043.
80. Hong, I., Rutherford, A., & Cebrian, M. (2021). Social mobilization and polarization can create volatility in COVID-19 pandemic control. Applied Network Science, 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s41109-021-00356-9.
81. Huang, Q., Lei, S., & Ni, B. (2022). Perceived information overload and unverified information sharing on wechat amid the COVID-19 pandemic: A moderated mediation model of anxiety and perceived herd. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.837820.
82. Humprecht, E., Esser, F., & Aeist, P.W. (2020). Resilience to online disinformation: A framework for cross-national comparative research. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 25 (3). https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161219900126.
83. Inoue, M., Shimoura, K., Nagai-Tanima, M., & Aoyama, T. (2022). The relationship between information sources, health literacy, and COVID-19 knowledge in the COVID-19 infodemic: Cross-sectional online study in japan. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 24 (7), e38332. https://doi.org/10.2196/38332.
84. Ishikawa, H., & Kiuchi, T. (2010). Health literacy and health communication. BioPsychosocial Medicine, 4 (18). https://doi.org/10.1186/1751-0759-4-18.
85. Islam, S., Sarkar, T., Khan, A.H., Kamal, A.M., Hasan, S.M.M., Kabir, A., Yeasmin, D., Islam, M.A., Chowdhury, K.I.A., Anwar, K.Z., Chughtai, A.A., & Seale, H. (2020). COVID-19-related infodemic and its impact on public health: A global social media analysis. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 103 (4), 1621-1629. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.20-0812.
86. İnfodemi Eğitimi (t.y.). Malenformasyon. http://infodemiegitimi.org/infodemi-sozlugu, (Erişim Tarihi: 19.10.2022).
87. Jackson, D., Firtko, A., & Edenborough, M. (2007). Personel resilience as a strategy for surviving and thriving in the face of workplace adversity: A literature review. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 60 (1), 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2648.2007.04412.x.
88. Jeamjitvibool, T., Duangchan, C., Mousa, A., & Mahikul, W. (2022). The association between resilience and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (22), https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192214854.
89. Jiang, T., Zhou, X., Lin, L., Pan, Y., Zhong, Y., Wang, X., & Zhu, H. (2021). COVID-19-related stigma and its influencing factors: A nationwide cross-sectional study during the early stage of the pandemic in china. BMJ Open, 11 (8). https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-048983.
90. Kalisch, R., Baker, D.G., Basten, U., Boks, M.P., Bonanno, G.A., Brummelman, E., Chmitorz, A., Fernàndez, G., Fiebach, C., Galatzer-Levy, I., Geuze, E., Groppa, S., Helmreich, I., Hendler, T., Hermans, E.J., Jovanovic, T., Kubiak, T., Lieb, K., Lutz, B., Müller, M., Murray, R.J., Nievergelt, C.M., Reif, A., Roelofs, K., Rutten, B.P.F., Sander, D., Schick, A., Tüscher, O., Diest, I.V., van Harmelen, A.L., Veer, I.M., Vermetten, E., Vinkers, C., Wager, T.D., Walter, H., Wessa, M., Wibral, M., & Kleim, B. (2017). The resilience framework as a strategy to combat stress-related disorders. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 784–790 https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0200-8.
91. Karabela, Ş.N., Coşkun, F., & Hoşgör, H. (2021). Investigation of the relationship between perceived causes of COVID-19, attitudes towards vaccine and level of trust in information sources from the perspective of infodemic: The case of turkey. BMC Public Health, 21 (1),1195. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-11262-1.
92. Kesgin, Y., & Ünlü, D.G. (2021). COVID-19 aşısı ve yalan haber: Aşılanma öncesinde bireylerin yalan haber içeriklerini fark etme, takip etme ve teyit etme eğilimlerinin belirlenmesi. Galatasaray Üniversitesi İletişim Dergisi, 35, 32-55. https://doi.org/10.16878/gsuilet.914875.
93. Kim, K.S., Sin, S.C.J., & Tsai, T. (2014). Individual differences in social media us efor information seeking. The Journal of Academic Librarianship, 40 (2), 171-178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2014.03.001.
94. Kim, S., & Kim, S. (2020). Searching for general model of conspiracy theories and its implication for public health policy: Analysis of the impacts of political, psychological, structural factors on conspiracy beliefs about the COVID-19 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 (1), 266. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18010266.
95. Kiraz, E. (2020). Sosyal medyada sahte haberlerin yayılmasında kullanıcı faktörü. İNİF E-Dergi, 5 (1), 9-24.
96. Koomson, I., Okumu, M., & Ansong, D. (2022). Introducing the disease outbreak resilience index (DORI) using the demographic and health surveys data from sub-saharan africa. Social Indicators Research, 162 (3), 1149-1175. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-02881-1.
97. Kużelewska, E., & Tomaszuk, M. (2022). Rise of conspiracy theories in the pandemic times. International Journal fort he Semiotics of Law, 35 (6), 2373-2389. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11196-022-09910-9.
98. Kyabaggu, R., Marshall, D., Ebuwei, P., & Ikenyei, U. (2022). Health literacy, equity, and communication in the COVID-19 era of misinformation: Emergence of health information professionals in infodemic management. JMIR Infodemiology, 2 (1), e35014. https://doi.org/10.2196/35014.
99. Labrague, L.J. (2021). Psychological resilience, coping behaviours and social support among health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review of quantitative studies. Journal of Nursing Management, 29 (7), 1893-1905. https://doi.org/10.1111/jonm.13336.
100. Lacsa, J.E.M. (2022). COVID-19 infodemic: The role of social media and other digital platforms. Journal of Public Health, 44 (2). https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab247.
101. Landrum, A.R., & Olshansky, A. (2019). The role of conspiracy mentality in denial of science and susceptibility to viral deception about science. Politics and the Life Science, 38 (2), 193-209. https://doi.org/10.1017/pls.2019.9.
102. Lee, Y.H., Liu, Z., Fatori, D., Bauermeister, J.R., Luh, R.A., Clark, C.R., Bauermeister, S., Brunoni, A.R., & Smoller, J.W. (2022). Association of everyday discrimination with depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation during the COVID-19 pandemic in the all of us research program. JAMA Psychiatry, 79 (9), 898-906. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapsychiatry.2022.1973.
103. Leigh, J.P., Moss, S.J., Tiifu, F., FitzGerald, E., Brundin-Mathers, R., Dodds, A., Brar, A., Moira de Grood, C., Stelfox, H.T., Fiest, K.M., & Ng-Kamstra, J. (2022). Lived experiences of asian canadians encountering discrimination during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative interview study. CMAJ Open, 10 (2), E539-E545. https://doi.org/10.9778/cmajo.20220019.
104. Levaot, Y., Greene, T., & Palgi, Y. (2022). The associations between media use, peritraumatic distress, anxiety and resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 145, 334-338. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.11.018.
105. Levin-Zamir, D., Sorensen, K., Su, T.T., Sentell, T., Rowlands, G., Messer, M., Pleasant, A., Nunes, L.S., Lev-Ari, S., & Okan, O. (2021). Health promotion preparedness for health crises- a 'must' or 'nice to have'? Case studies and global lessons learned from the COVID-19 pandemic. Global Health Promotion, 28 (2). https://doi.org/10.1177/1757975921998639.
106. Li, P., Chen, B., Deveaux, G., Luo, Y., Tao, W., Wen, L.W.J., & Zheng, Y. (2022). Cross-verification of COVID-19 information obtained from unofficial social media accounts and associated changes in health behaviors: Web-based questionnaire study among chinese netizens. JMIR Public Health Surveillance, 8 (5). https://doi.org/10.2196/33577.
107. Liu, T., & Xiao, X. (2021). A framework of AI-based approaches to improving eHealth literacy and combating infodemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 9. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2021.755808.
108. Lo Moro, G., Scaioli, G., Bert, F., Zacchero, A.L., Minutiello, E., & Siliquini, R. (2022). Exploring the relationship between COVID-19 vaccine refusal and belief in fake news and conspiracy theories: A nationwide cross-sectional study in italy. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19 (15):9350. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19159350.
109. Magarini, F.M., Pinelli, M., Sinisi, A., Ferrari, S., Fazio, G.L.D., & Galeazzi, G.M. (2021). Irrational beliefs about COVID-19: A scoping review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18 (19). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18199839.
110. Mani, N.S., Ottosen, T., Fratta, M., & Yu, F. (2021). A health literacy analysis of the consumer-oriented COVID-19 information produces by ten state health departments. Journal od Medical Library Association, 109 (3), 422-431. https://doi.org/10.5195/jmla.2021.1165.
111. Marecos, J., Shattock, E., Bartlett, O., Goiana-da-Silva, F., Maheswaran, H., Ashrafian, H., & Darzi, A. (2023). Health misinformation and freedom of expression: Considerations for policymakers. Health Economics, Policy and Law, 18 (2), 204-217. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1744133122000263.
112. Massaro, E., Ganin, A., Perra, N., Linkov, I., & Vespignani, A. (2018). Resilience management during large-scale epidemic outbreaks. Scientific Reports, 8 (1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-19706-2.
113. McCaffery, K.J., Dood, R.H., Cvejic, E., Ayre, J., Batcup, C., Isautier, J.M.J., Copp, T., Bonner, C., Pickles, K., Nickel, B., Dakin, T., Cornell, S., & Wolf, M.S. (2020). Health literacy and disparities in COVID-19-related knowledge, attitudes, beliefs and behaviours in australia. Public Health Research and Practice, 30 (4). https://doi.org/10.17061/phrp30342012.
114. Melendez, P. (2020). Stabbing of Asian-American 2-year-old and her family was a virus-fueled hate crime: Feds. The Daily Beast. https://www.thedailybeast.com/stabbing-of-asian-american-2-year-old-and-her-family-was-a-coronavirus-fueled-hate-crime-feds-say, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.09.2024).
115. Merriam-Webster (2020). Words we’re watching: Infodemic. https://www.merriam-webster.com/words-at-play/words-were-watching-infodemic-meaning, (Erişim Tarihi: 08.07.2021).
116. Mheidly, N., & Fares, J. (2020). Leveraging media and health communication strategies to overcome the COVID-19 infodemic. Journal of Public Health Policy, 41 (4), 410-420. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41271-020-00247-w.
117. Mistry, S.K., Ali, A.R.M.M., Yadav, U.N., Huda, N., Rahman, M., Saha, M., Rahman, A., Lim, D., & Ghimire, S. (2022). Stigma toward people with COVID-19 among bangladeshi older adults. Frontiers in Public Health,10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.982095.
118. Naveed, M.A., Shaukat, R., Asghar, A., & Rafique, G.M. (2023). How COVID-19 influences fear, protective behaviour, and conspiracy beliefs among university students in pakistan? Journal of Academic Librarianship, 49 (3). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acalib.2023.102699.
119. Nguyen, H.T., Do, B.N., Pham, K.M., Kim, G.B., Dam, H.T.B., Nguyen, T.T., Nguyen, T.T.P., Nguyen, Y.H., Sørensen, K., Pleasant, A., & Duong, T.W. (2020). Fear of COVID-19 scale-associations of its scores with health literacy and health-related behaviors among medical students. International Journal of Environmental Researxh and Public Health, 7 (11). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17114164.
120. Nguyen, L.H.T., Vo, M.T.H., Tran, L.T.M., Dadaczynski, K., Okan, O., Murray, L., & Vo, T.V. (2021). Digital health literacy about COVID-19 as a factor mediating the association between the inportance of online information search and subjective well-being among university students in vietnam. Frontiers in Digital Health, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fdgth.2021.739476.
121. Okan, O., Bollweg, T.M., Berens, E.M., Hurrelmann, K., Bauer, U., & Schaeffer, D. (2020). Coronavirus-related health literacy: A cross-sectional study in adults during the COVID-19 infodemic in germany. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (15), https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155503.
122. Okan, O., Messer, M., Levin-Zamir, D., Paakkari, L., & Sørensen, K. (2022). Health literacy as a social vaccine in the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Promotion International, Jan 12. https://doi.org/10.1093/heapro/daab197.
123. Okan, O., Messer, M., Levin-Zamir, D., Dadaczynski, K., Paakkari, L., Schaeffer, D., & Sørensen, K. (2023). Health literacy action framework for health emergencies and infodemics. Information Services & Use, 43 (2), 115-130. https://doi.org/10.3233/ISU-230193.
124. Oleksy, T., Wnuk, A., Gambin, M., & Łyś, A. (2021). Dynamic relationships between different types of conspiracy theories about COVID-19 and protective behaviour: A four-wave panel study in poland. Social Science and Medicine, 280, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114028.
125. Ong, L.Q., Klaiber, P., DeLongis, A., & Sin, N.L. (2022). Everyday discrimination, daily affect, and physical symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Health Psychology, 41 (11), 843-852. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0001242.
126. Paakkari, L., & Okan, O. (2020). COVID-19: Health literacy is an underestimated problem. Comment, 5 (5), E249-E250. https://doi.org/10.1016/ S2468-2667(20)30086-4.
127. Pan American Health Organization, & Worl Health Organization (2016). Risk communication in the age of zika: Risk communication, social mobilization, and community engagement in response to the zika virus, congenital zika syndrome, and other neurological disorders. (WHO/ZIKV Weekly Report). https://www3.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2016/2016-cha-risk-comm-age-zika.pdf.
128. Pan American Health Organization (2020). Understanding the infodemic and misinformation in the fight against Covid-19. https://iris.paho.org/handle/10665.2/52052, (Erişim Tarihi: 05.07.2021).
129. Parks, W., & Lloyd, L. (2004). Planning social mobilization and communication for dengue fever prevention and control: A step-by-step guide. https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/42832/9241591072.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y, (Erişim Tarihi: 10.04.2023).
130. Patel, M.P., Kute, V.B., & Agarwal, S. (2020). "infodemic" COVID 19: More pandemic than the virus. Indian Journal of Nephrology, 30 (3), 188-191. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijn.IJN_216_20.
131. Pennycook, G., McPhetres, J., Zhang, Y., Lu, J.G., & Rand, D.G. (2020). Fighting COVID-19 misinformation on social media: Experimental evidence for a scalable accuracy-nudge intervention. Psychological Science, 31 (7), 770-780. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797620939054.
132. Pfefferbaum, B., & North, C.S. (2020). Mental health and the Covid-19 pandemic. The New Wngland Journal of Medicine, 383 (6), 510-512. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2008017.
133. Pisl, V., Volavka, J., Chvojkova, E., Cechova, K., Kavalirova, G., & Vevera, J. (2021). Dissociation, cognitive reflection and health literacy have a modest effect on belief in conspiracy theories about COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health,18 (10), 5065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18105065.
134. Plunk, A.D., Carver, A., Minggia, C., Prasanna, K., Sheehan, B.E., Herman, M., Burwell, C.B., Moeller, F.G., Krist, A.H., McQueen-Gibson, E. (2022). Virtual engagement of under-resourced communities: Lessons learned during the COVID-19 pandemic for creating crisis-resistant research infrastructure. Journal of Clinical and Translational Science, 6 (1). https://doi.org/10.1017/cts.2022.385.
135. Pollack, A.A., Weiss, B., & Trung, L.T. (2016). Mental health, life functioning and risk factors among people exposed to frequent natural disasters and chronic poverty in vietnam. BJPsych Open, 2, 221-232. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjpo.bp.115.002170.
136. Prisma Statement (t.y.). PRISMA 2020 checklist. https://www.prisma-statement.org/ (Erişim Tarihi: 04.09.2024).
137. Rathore, F.A., & Farooq, F. (2020). Information overload and infodemic in the COVID-19 pandemic. The Journal of Pakistan Medical Association, 70 (5), 162-165. https://doi.org/10.5455/JPMA.38.
138. Reynolds, B., Crawford, S., Deitch, S., DeFrancis, S., Garland, D., Hall, W., Marshall, S., Norwood, A., Schieber, R. (2007). Crisis and emergency risk communication pandemic influenza. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/7037, (Erişim Tarihi: 25.02.2023).
139. Schäfer, M., Stark, B., Werner, A.M., Tibubos, A.N., Reichel, J.L., Pfirrmann, D., Edelmann, D., Heller, S., Mülder, L.M., Rigotti, T., Letzel, S., & Dietz, P. (2021). Health information seeking among university students before and during the corona crisis-findings from germany. Frontiers in Public Health, 8. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.616603.
140. Sentell, T., Vamos, S., & Okan, O. (2020). Interdisciplinar perspectives on health literacy research around the world: More important than ever in a time of COVID-19. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (9): 3010. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17093010.
141. Sharma, L.D., Joshi, K., Acharya, T.A., Dwivedi, M., & Sethy, G. (2022). Infodemics during era of COVID-19 pandemic: A review of literature. Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 11 (8), 4236-4239. https://doi.org/10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2446_21.
142. Sharma, R., Kumar, M., & Rohilla, K.K. (2022). COVID-19 infodemic: Evaluating information-seeking behaviour among healthcare workers during a pandemic. Cureus, 4 (1). https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.20910.
143. Shi, L., Zhang, D., Martin, E., Chen, Z., Li, H., Han, W., Wen, M., Chen, L., Li, Y., Li, J., Chen, B., Ramos, A., King, K.M., Michaud, T., & Su, D. (2022). Racial discrimination, mental health and behavioral health during the COVID-19 pandemic: A national survey in the united states. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 37 (10). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11606-022-07540-2.
144. Sørensen, K. (2023). Smart health! Expanding the need for new literacies. Purnat, D., Nguyen, T., & Briand, S. (Eds.). Managing infodemics in the 21st century. (ss.71-83). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-27789-4.
145. Su, Y., Lee, D.K., & Xiao, X. (2022). I enjoy thinking critically, and I’m in control: Examining the influences of media literacy factorc on misperceptions amidst the COVID-19 infodemic. Computers in Human Behavior, 128 (2022), 10711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2021.107111.
146. Sun, Z., Cheng, X., Zhang, R., & Yang, B. (2020). Factors influencing rumour re-spreading in a public health crisis by the middle-aged and elderly populations. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (18). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17186542.
147. Świątkiewicz-Mośny, M., Prokop-Dorner, A., Ślusarczyk, M., Ożegalska-Łukasik, N., Piłat-Kobla, A., Zając, J., & Bala, M.M. (2022). When peppa pig and confucius meet, joining forces on the battlefield of health literacy-a qualitative analysis of COVID-19 educational materials for children and adolescents from china, the USA, and europe. Plos One, 17 (12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0278554.
148. Şenol, Y., & Avcı, K. (2020). Salgın iletişiminde sosyal medyanın kullanımı. Journal of Health Science and Medicine, 3 (3), 340-348. https://doi.org/10.32322/jhsm.725257.
149. Taha, S.A., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2013). H1N1 was not all that scary: Uncertainly and stressor appraisals predict anxiety related to a coming viral threat. Stress Health, 30, 149-157. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2505.
150. Taşdemir, E., & Karadeniz, B. (2021). COVID-19 pandemisi hakkında sosyal medyada üretilen yalan haberleri doğrulama platformları üzerinden okumak: Teyit.Org örneği. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi İletişim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11 (2), 59-83. https://doi.org/10.53495/e-kiad.1021029.
151. Thackeray, R., Neiger, B.L., Smith, A.K., & Wagenan, S.B.V. (2012). Adoption and use of social media among public health departments. BMC Public Health, 12, 242. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-12-242.
152. The Lancet (2020). The truth is out there, somewhere. The Lancet, 396, 291. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)31678-0.
153. Toker, H. (2016). Doğal afetler, iletişim ve medya. Toprak Karaman, Z. & Altay, A. (Der.). Bütünleşik afet yönetimi içinde, (ss. 248-277). İzmir: İlkem Yayınları.
154. Tomes, N. (2020). Managing the modern infodemic. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 192 (43), E1311-E1312. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.201905.
155. Tomes, N., Parry, M. S. (2022). What are the historical roots of the COVID-19 infodemic? Lessons from the past. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe.
156. Toquero, C.M.D. (2023). Addressing infodemic through the comprehensive competency framework of media and information literacy. Journal of Public Health, 14 (45), 132-133. https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdab412.
157. Toulmin, S. E. (2003). The uses of argument. Cambridge University Press.
158. Tsamakis, K., Tsiptsios, D., Stubbs, B., Ma, R., Romano, E., Mueller, C., Ahmad, A., Triantafyllis, A.S., Tsitsas, G., & Dragioti, E. (2022). Summarising data and factors associated with COVID-19 related conspiracy theories in the first year of the pandemic: A systematic review and narrative synthesis. BMC Psychology, 10 (1), 244. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-022-00959-6.
159. Ullah, I., Khan, K.S., Tahir, M.J., Ahmed, A., & Harapan, H. (2021). Myths and conspiracy theories on vaccines and COVID-19: Potential effect on global vaccine refusals. Vacunas, 22 (2), 93-97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vacun.2021.01.001.
160. UNICEF (t.y.). Social Mobilization: Enabling people to act on an important issue. https://www.sbcguidance.org/do/social-mobilization (Erişim Tarihi: 04.09.2024).
161. Ünal, R., & Taylan, A. (2017). Sağlık iletişiminde yalan haber-yanlış enformasyon sorunu ve doğrulama platformları. Atatürk İletişim Dergisi, 14 (Sağlık İletişimi Özel Sayısı), 81-100.
162. van Mulukom, V., Pummerer, L.J., Alper, S., Bai, H., Čavojová, V., Farias,J., Kay, C.S., Lazarevic, L.B., Lobato, E.J.C., Marinthe, G., Banai, I.P., Šrol, J., & Žeželj, I. (2022). Antecedents and consequences of COVID-19 conspiracy beliefs: A systematic review. Social Science and Medicine, 301. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2022.114912.
163. Villa, S., Jaramillo, E., Mangioni, D., Bandera, A., Gori, A., & Raviglione, M.C. (2020). Stigma at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. Clinical Microbiology and Infection, 26 (11), 1450-1452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmi.2020.08.001.
164. Vrdelja, M., Vrbovšek, S., Klopčič, V., Dadaczynski, K., & Okan, O. (2021). Facing the growing COVID-19 infodemic: Digital health literacy and information-seeking behaviour of university students in slovenia. International Journal of Environmental Research anf Public Health, 18, 8507. https://doi.org/10.3390/ ijerph18168507.
165. Wang, C., Pan, R., Wan, X., Tan, Y., Xu, L., Ho, C., & Ho, R.C. (2020). Immediate psychological responses and associated factors during the initial stage of the 2019 coronavirus disease (COVID-19) epidemic among the general population in china. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17 (5). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17051729.
166. White, B., Phuong, L., Roach, J., Teggelove, N., & Wallace, H. (2022). Pandemics, infodemics and health promotion. Health Promotion Journal of Australia, 34 (1), 169-172. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpja.644.
167. Wong, F.H.C., Liu, T., Leung, D.K.Y., Zhang, A.Y., Au, W.S.H., Kwok, W.W., Shum, A.K.Y., Wong, G.H.Y., & Lum, T.Y. (2021). Consuming information related to COVID-19 on social media among older adults and its association with anxiety, social trust in information, and COVID-safe behaviors: Cross-sectional telephone survey. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 23 (2). https://doi.org/10.2196/26570.
168. Wong-Padoongpatt, G., Barrita, A., & King, A. (2022). Perceived everyday discrimination explains internalized racism during the COVID-19 pandemic among asians. Bheavioral Medicine, 48 (2), 109-119. https://doi.org/10.1080/08964289.2021.2015277.
169. Xiao, X. (2022). Not doomed: Examining the path from misinformation exposure to verification and correction in the context of COVID-19 pandemic. Telematics and Informatics, 74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tele.2022.101890.
170. Xu, R.H., Shi, L.S.B., Xia, Y., & Wang, D. (2022). Associations among eHealth literacy, social support, individual resilience, and emotional status in primary care providers during the outbreak of the SARS-CoV-2 delta variant. Digital Health, 25. https://doi.org/10.1177/20552076221089789.
171. Yang, Z., Luo, X., & Jia, H. (2021). Is it all a conspiracy? Conspiracy theories and people's Attitude to COVID-19 vaccination. Vaccines, 9 (10), 1051. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines9101051.
172. Yılmaz, Y., Erdoğan, A., & Hocaoğlu, Ç. (2021). Covid 19 ve damgalama. Kocaeli Medical Journal, Özel Sayı 1, 47-55.
173. Ying, W., & Cheng, C. (2021). Public emotional and coping responses to the COVID-19 infodemic: A review and recommendations. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 12:455938. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2021.755938.
174. Yüksel, E., Kaya, A.Y., Koçak, A., & Aydın, S. (2014). Check up sağlık iletişimi. Konya: Literatürk Academia.
175. Zarocostas, J. (2020). How to fight an infodemic. Lancet, 395 (10225), 676. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30461-X.
176. Zhang L., Cruz-Gonzalez, M., Lin, Z., Ouyang, X., Zhao, F., & Alegría, M. (2022). Association of everyday discrimination with health outcomes among asian and non-asian US older adults before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.953155.
177. Zhang, M., Gurung, A., Anglewicz, P., Baniya, K., Yun, K. (2022). Discrimination and stress among asian refugee populations during the COVID-19 pandemic: Evidence from bhutanese and burmese refugees in the USA. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9(2), 589-597. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-021-00992-y.
178. Zhang, R., Yan, J., Jia, H., Luo, X., Lin, J., & Liu, Q. (2023). Nationalism, conspiracy theories and vaccine mandates: Exploring the statism determinants for attitudes to COVID-19 control in china. Vaccine: X, 13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvacx.2023.100263.
179. Zielinski, C. (2021). Infodemics and infodemiology: A short history, a long future. Revista Panamericana de Salud Publica, 45. https://doi.org/10.26633/RPSP.2021.40.