The Impact of Socio-cultural factors on females passing through Higher Education in Pakistan

Abstract

Purpose: Educated females play an important role in the social and economic development of a country. The aim of the study was to assess the problems facing females before entering higher education, and then after education when joining professions. Research Methods: Using a higher education survey questionnaire, data were collected from 2188 female respondents including students (n=2018) and teachers (n=170) from government colleges and universities spread over four districts of the Pakistan province of Punjab. Results showed females who do succeed in getting a higher education are then exposed to a male dominant culture in the workplace. This re-inforces the socio-cultural norms of the country at large; causes conflict between professional and cultural obligations, and is linked with de-motivation. Four types of female have been identified who respond to the socio-culture in stereotypical ways. System successes have survived discrimination inherent in the wider society with family support. System fighters, lacking whole-hearted family support, perceive discrimination strongly but have an intrinsic motivation that drives them on. Motivated realists appear to have accommodated to the socio-cultural practices of Pakistan, and have planned how to 'beat the system' to eventually become system successes. Neutral acceptors can be contrasted with system fighters as they appear to lack intrinsic motivation, accept the external socio-cultural world with minimal challenge.

Implications for Research and Practice: The results of the study provide guidelines to the policy makers and administrators to make amendments in the higher education policy where female can avail more opportunities to get higher education and social recognition as they have the significant contribution in the development of a sustainable society.

Keywords

• higher education socio-cultural factors faculty female students

References

1. Ahmed, N. (1984). Evaluation process in education system. Islamabad, Pakistan: AIOU.
2. Anderberg, M. R., Cluster analysis for applications, Academic Press, New York, 1973
3. Batool, S.Q., Sajid, M.A. and Ur-Rehman, M. (2013).Gender and Higher Education in Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research 15(6), 780-789.
4. Chliwniak, L. (1997). Higher education leadership: Analyzing the gender gap.
5. Washington, DC: Graduate School of Education and Human Development, George Washington University.
6. Cohen, J. (1988) Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale NJ: Earlbaum.
7. Cohen, L., Manion, M. and Morrison, K. (2007) Research Methods in Education. Sixth Edition. New York: Routledge.
8. Duff, A. (1997) A note of reliability and validity of a 30-item version of Entwistle and Tait's .Revised Approaches to Studying Inventory. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 529-539.

9. Farah, I. & Shera, S. (2007) Female Education in Pakistan: A Review. In R. Qureshi and J. F. A. Rarieya (eds.) Gender & Education in Pakistan (pp.3-42). Oxford: Oxford University Press
10. Gardner, P.L. (1995) Measuring Attitudes to Science: Unidimensionality and Internal Consistency Revisited, Research in Science Education 25 (3), 283-289.
11. Gardner, P.L. (1996) The dimensionality of attitude scales: a widely misunderstood idea, International Journal of Science Education 18 (8), 913-919.
12. Gracia, L (2009). Employability and higher education: contextualizing female students’ workplace experiences to enhance understanding of employability development. Journal of Education and Work, 22 (4), 301-318.
13. HEC. (2012). HEC Recognized Universities and Degree Awarding Institutions. Retrieved from September 12, 2012 from http://www.hec.gov.pk/ourinstitutes/pages/default.aspx
14. Hewlett, S. A. (2002). Executive Women and the Myth of Having it All. Harvard Business Review.
15. Isani, U.A.G. & Virk, M. L. (2003). Higher education in Pakistan. A historical futuristic perspective. Islamabad. Pakistan: Roohani Art Press. Jacobs, J. A. (1996). Gender inequality and higher education, Annual Review Socialogy, 22, 153–85
16. Khalid, H.S., & Mukhtar, E.M. (2002).The future of girl’s education in Pakistan: A study on policy measures and other factors determining girls’ education. Islamabad, Pakistan: UNESCO.
17. Khan, A. (2007). Gender issues in higher education in Pakistan. Islamabad, Pakistan: Maktaba Jadeed Press .
18. Komuhangiro, S., Urassa, J.K. & Makauki, A.F. (2003). Reasons for small proportion of female students pursuing science programmes in higher leaning institutions of Tanzania. Paper presented at MU-AUC International Conference, White Sands Hotel, Dares Salaam, February 26-28, 2003.
19. Kramarae, P.M., Cheris & Dale, S. (2000). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women, Vol 2. New York: Routledge. Kumar, R. (2000). Women and Education. New Delhi: Anmol Publishing.
20. Lopez-Claros, A. & Zahidi, S. (2005). Women’s Empowerment: Measuring the Global Gender Gap. Geneva: World Economic Forum. Maqsood, F., Maqsood, S. and Raza, H. (2012). Getting Higher Education: Is it really a challenge for females in Pakistan? Academic Research International, 2(3), 352-360.
21. Malik, S. (2002). Factors Affecting the Development of Female Higher Education in Pakistan and Future Strategies. Unpublished Ph D thesis. Institute of Education & Research, University of Arid Agriculture, Rawalpindi, Pakistan.
22. McClelland, J., and Evans, A. (1992). The Education of Women. New York: Garland Publishing Inc.
23. McMillan, J. H.., and Schumacher, S. (1993). Research in Education: A Conceptual Introduction. New York: Harper Collins College Publishers.
24. Morley, L. (2007). Sister-matic: gender mainstreaming in higher education. Teaching in Higher Education, 12(5-6), 607-620.
25. Munby, H. (1997) Issues of Validity in Science Attitude Measurement. Journal of Research in Science Teaching 34 (4), 337-341.
26. Pell, T., & Hargreaves, L. (2011). Making sense of cluster analysis: Revelations from Pakistani science classes. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(3), 347-367.
27. Rathgeber, E. (1995). Schooling for what? Education and career opportunities for women in science, technology and engineering. In Missing Links: Science and Technology for Sustainable and Equitable Development. Gender Working Group of the United Nations Commission on Science and Technology for Development. Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre (p.181-201).
28. Sathar, Z.A., Lloyd, C.B., &Haque, M. (2000). Investment in Children’s Education and Family Retrieved on 30-12- 2012 from http://go.worldbank.org/K9L01MQLO0
29. Sen, A. (2001). Improving gender equality in Pakistan: Small steps to date, large strides ahead. Retrieved on 31-12-2012 from http://siteresources.worldbank.org/PAKISTANEXTN/Resources/293051-1146639350561/CGA-Chapter-1.pdf
30. Shahzad, S., Ali, R., Qadeer, M.Z., Hukamdad, Khan, M.S.(2011). Community Attitudes Toward Female Education. International Journal of Academic Research, 3(1), 970-973.
31. Shaukat, S., & Pell, W.A. (2016). Gender inequity at workplace in Pakistani higher education Institutions. Bahria Journal of Professional Psychology, 15 (1), 49-65.
32. Shaukat, S. & Siddiquah, A. (2013). Personal and social factors encountered in Higher Education: A survey of female students and faculty of Punjab, Pakistan Unpublished Paper for the Higher Education Commission, Pakistan. Lahore: University of Education.
33. Soofi, M.(2014, June 6) Punjab notes: Woman in public: body language born of fear! Dawn newspaper. On WWW at http://www.dawn.com/news/1110878/punjab-notes-woman-in-public-body-language-born-of-fear . (Accessed 6.6.2014).
34. The Nation (2014, June 1) Awaiting Justice The Nation newspaper editorial, p6.On WWW at http://www.nation.com.pk/E-Paper/lahore/2014-06-01/page-6 . (Accessed 1.6.2014).
35. UNESCO (2002). Cultural Diversity Common Heritage Plural Identities, Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization United Nations, Paris.
36. UNESCO (2010). Why Gender Equality in Basic Education in Pakistan? UNESCO: Islamabad, Pakistan
37. World Bank (2007). Implementation Completion and Result Report: Third Education and Training Project (IDA-33250, IDA-33251). Retrieved on 20-06-2013 fromhttp://www.worldbank.org.bd/external/default/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2007/08/09000020953_20070829134408/Rendered/PDF/ICR0000
38. World Economic Forum (2013). The Global Gender Gap Report 2013. On WWW at http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_GenderGap_Report_2013.pdf (Accessed 3.6.2014).
39. Youngman, M.B. (1979). Analysing Social and Educational Research Data. London: McGraw Hill.