Politika Önemlidir: Akademik Suistimale Yönelik Eğilimler

Year 2024, , 65 - 106, 30.06.2024

Nalan Erçin Kamburoğlu , Salim Razı

https://doi.org/10.17244/eku.1409200

Abstract

Mart 2020'de COVID-19'un patlak vermesinden bu yana, küresel eğitim sistemi virüs tehdidine yanıt olarak Acil Uzaktan Öğretimi (AUÖ) benimsemek zorunda kaldı. Öğretim yöntemlerindeki bu ani değişim, eğitimin tüm düzeylerinde beklenen ve beklenmeyen sonuçlara yol açtı. Bu çalışmanın amacı, Türkiye'nin batı bölgesinde yer alan bir yükseköğretim kurumunda AUÖ’nün akademik dürüstlük üzerindeki etkisini araştırmaktır. 12 varsayımsal akademik suistimal senaryosu anketi toplam 234 katılımcı tarafından dolduruldu. Bu çalışmanın bulguları, gizli anlaşmanın en sık gözlemlenen akademik suiistimal biçimi olduğunu ve sınavlarda dış kaynak kullanımının özellikle öğrenciler arasında yaygın olduğunu göstermektedir. Ancak bu çalışmada kopya anlaşmasının, kopya çekmenin akademik ihlallerde en az tercih edilen yöntem olduğu da öğrencilerin gözlemlerine dayalı olarak bulunmuştur. Bir diğer önemli bulgu, öğretmenler tarafından sınıf içi etkinliklerin, AUÖ sırasında öğrenciler arasındaki iş birliğini veya dürüst olmayan uygulamaları istemeden de olsa kolaylaştırabileceğini göstermektedir. Etkili değerlendirmeler için iyi tasarlanmış ödevlerin uygulanmasının, bir akademik kurumda akademik dürüstlüğün korunmasına yönelik bir ilk adım olabileceğini vurgulamakta fayda var. Sonuç olarak, bu çalışma, yükseköğretimde devam eden ve yaygın olan akademik dürüstlük ihlalleri sorununun altını çizerek, bunun bir salgın endişesi olduğunu yeniden doğrulamaktadır.

Keywords

Akademik dürüstlük, akademik suistimal, gizli anlaşma, kopya anlaşması, AUÖ

Policy Matters: Tendencies towards Academic Misconduct

Abstract

Since the outbreak of COVID-19 in March 2020, the global education system has been compelled to adopt Emergency Remote Teaching (ERT) in response to the threat of the virus. This abrupt shift in teaching methods has yielded anticipated and unanticipated consequences across all levels of education. The objective of this study is to investigate the impact of ERT on academic integrity at a higher education institution situated in the western region of Türkiye. 12 hypothetical academic misconduct scenarios questionnaire was completed by a total of 234 participants. The responses relating to student observations suggest that collusion is perceived to be the most commonly witnessed form of academic misconduct, with many students specifically noting the prevalence of exam outsourcing. However, contract cheating was found to be the least preferred method of academic transgression in this study. Another significant finding suggests based on students observations that in-class activities facilitated by teachers can inadvertently facilitate either collaboration or dishonest practices among students during ERT. It is worth emphasizing that the implementation of well-designed assignments for effective assessments can serve as an initial step towards preserving academic integrity within an academic institution. Consequently, this study underscores the persisting and widespread issue of academic integrity transgressions within higher education, reaffirming its status as an epidemic concern.

Keywords

Academic integrity, academic misconduct, collusion, contract cheating, ERT

References

• Aiken, L. R. (1991). Detecting, understanding, and controlling for cheating on tests. Research in Higher Education, 32, 725-736. https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/BF00974740.pdf
• Anekwe, T. D. (2010). Profits and plagiarism: the case of medical ghostwriting. Bioethics, 24(6), 267–272. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8519.2008.00705.x
• Ashworth, P., & Bannister, P. (1997). Guilty in whose eyes? University students’ perceptions of cheating and plagiarism in academic work and assessment. Studies in Higher Education, 22, 187. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079712331381034
• Baird, J. S. (1980). Current trends in college cheating. Psychology in Schools, 17, 515-622. https://doi.org/10.1002/1520-6807(198010)17:4<515::AID-PITS2310170417>3.0.CO;2-3
• Barrett, R., & Cox, A. L. (2005). ‘At least they’re learning something’: The hazy line between collaboration and collusion. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 30(2), 107-122. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260293042000264226
• Bao, W. (2020). COVID‐ 19 and online teaching in higher education: A case study of Peking University. Human Behavior and Emerging Technologies, 2(2), 113-115. https://doi.org/10.1002/hbe2.191
• Bowers, W. J. (1964). Students’ dishonesty and its control in college. Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University.
• Bretag, T., & Mahmud, S. (2016). A conceptual framework for implementing exemplary academic integrity policy in Australian higher education. Handbook of academic integrity, 463-480.
• Bretag, T., Harper, R., Burton, M., Ellis, C., Newton, P., Rozenberg, P., Saddiqui, S., &Van Haeringen, K. (2019). Contract cheating: A survey of Australian university students. Studies in Higher Education, 44(11), 1837-1856. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2018.1462788
• Biricik, Y. S., & Sivrikaya, M. H. (2020). COVID-19 fear in sports sciences students and its effect on academic procrastination behavior. International Journal of Applied Exercise Physiology, 9(10), 50-56.
• Calluzzo, V., & Cante, V. (2004). Ethics in information technology and software use. Journal of Business Ethics, 51(3), 301-312. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:BUSI.0000032658.12032.4e
• Carnevale, D. (1999). How to proctor from a distance. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 46(12), 47-48.
• Carroll, J., Appleton, J., & Plagiarism, A. (2001). A good practice guide JISC report. uk/uploaded_documents/brookes.pdf
• Chop, R. M., & Silva, M. C. (1991). Scientific fraud: Definitions, policies, and implications for nursing research. Journal of Professional Nursing, 7(3), 166-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/8755-7223(91)90051-L
• Cinali, G. (2016). Middle eastern perspectives of academic integrity: A view from the Gulf region. In T. Bretag (Ed), Handbook of academic integrity (pp. 113-33). Springer. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_8
• Clarke, R., & Lancaster, T. (2006, June). Eliminating the successor to plagiarism? Identifying the usage of contract cheating sites. In 2nd International plagiarism conference proceedings (pp. 1-13). North Umbria Learning Press.
• Coston, C. T., & Jenks, D. A. (1998). Exploring academic dishonesty among undergraduate criminal justice majors: A research note. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 22(2), 235-248.
• Daniels, L. M., Goegan, L. D., & Parker, P. C. (2021). The impact of COVID-19 triggered changes to instruction and assessment on university students’ self-reported motivation, engagement and perceptions. Social Psychology of Education, 24(1), 299-318. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-021-09612-3
• Davis, L. L. (1992). Instrument review: Getting the most from a panel of experts. Applied Nursing Research, 5(4), 194-197. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0897-1897(05)80008-4
• Davis, S. F., Drinan, P. F., & Gallant, T. B. (2009). Cheating in school. Wiley-Blackwell.
• Davis, S. F., Grover, C. A., Becker, A. H., & McGregor, L. N. (1992). Academic dishonesty: Prevalence, determinants, techniques, and punishments. Teaching Psychology, 19, 16-20.https://doi.org/10.1207/s15328023top1901_3
• Dawson, P., & Sutherland-Smith, W. (2018). Can markers detect contract cheating? Results from a pilot study. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(2), 286–293. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2017.1336746
• Dawson, P., & Sutherland-Smith, W. (2019). Can training improve marker accuracy at detecting contract cheating? A multi-disciplinary pre-post study. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 44(5), 715–725. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2018.1531109
• Dee, T., & Jacob, B. (2010 January). Rational ignorance in education: A field experiment in student plagiarism. NBER Working Paper No. 15672.
• Denisova-Schmidt, E. (2019, April 20). What can universities do to stop students cheating? University World News: The Global Window on Higher Education. Retrieved from https:// www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?story=20190415143459825
• Diekhoff, G. M., LaBeff, E. E., Clark, R. E., Williams, L. E., Francis, B., & Haines, V. J. (1996). College cheating: Ten years later. Research in Higher Education, 37, 487-502. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01730111
• Dietz-Uhler, B. (2011). Academic dishonesty in online courses. 2011 ASCUE Proceedings (pp. 71-77).
• Drumm B. T., & Jong, A. S. 2020. A semester like no other: a student and lecturer perspective on the impact of Covid-19 on 3rd level academic life. All Ireland Journal of Higher Education. 12(3), pp.1-14.
• Eaton, S. E. (2020). Academic integrity during COVID-19: Reflections from the University of Calgary. International Studies in Educational Administration, 48(1), 80-85. http://hdl.handle.net/1880/112293
• Eskridge, C., & Ames, G. A. (1993). Attitudes about cheating and self-reported cheating behaviors of criminal justice majors and noncriminal justice majors: A research note. Journal of Criminal Justice Education, 4,65-78.
• Etter, S., Cramer, J. J., & Finn, S. (2006). Origins of academic dishonesty: Ethical orientations and technology. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 39(2), 133-155. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2006.10782477
• Faucher, D., & Caves, S. (2009). Academic dishonesty: Innovative cheating techniques and the detection and prevention of them. Teaching and Learning in Nursing, 4(2), 37-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.teln.2008.09.003
• Fishman, T. (2016). Academic integrity as an educational concept, concern, and movement in US institutions of higher learning. In T. Bretag (Ed.), Handbook of academic integrity (pp.7-21). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_1
• Franklyn-Stokes, A., & Newstead, S. E. (1995). Undergraduate cheating: who does what and why? Studies in Higher Education, 20(2), 159-172. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079512331381673
• Flowerdew, J., & Li, Y. (2007). Plagiarism and second language writing in an electronic age. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 27, 161-183. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190508070086
• Frost, J., Hamlin, A., & Barczyk, C. (2007). A survey of professor reactions to scenarios of academic dishonesty in American universities. Journal of Business Inquiry, 6(1,) 11−18.
• Gaberson, K. B. (1997). Academic dishonesty among nursing students. Nursing Forum, 32(3), 14-20). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6198.1997.tb00205.x
• Genereux, R. L., & McLeod, B. A. (1995). Circumstances surrounding cheating: A questionnaire study of college students. Research in Higher Education, 36, 687-704.
• Grant, J. S., & Davis, L. L. (1997). Selection and use of content experts for instrument development. Research in nursing & health, 20(3), 269-274. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-240X(199706)20:3<269::AID-NUR9>3.0.CO;2-G
• Granitz, N., & Loewy, D. (2007). Applying ethical theories: Interpreting and responding to student plagiarism. Journal of Business Ethics,72 (3), 293−306. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-006-9171-9
• Haines, V. J., Diekhoff, G. M., LaBeff, E. E., & Clark, R. E. (1986). College cheating: Immaturity, lack of commitment, and the neutralizing attitude. Research in Higher Education, 25, 342–354.
• Hancock, D. J. (2011). Faculty beliefs regarding online academic dishonesty and the measures taken to address academic dishonesty in Georgia. Electronic Theses and Dissertations, 343. https://digitalcommons.georgiasouthern.edu/etd/343
• Hard, S. F., Conway, J. M., & Moran, A. S. (2006). Faculty and college student beliefs about the frequency of student academic misconduct. Journal of Higher Education, 77(6), 1058–1080. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2006.11778956
• Hart, L., & Morgan, L. (2010). Academic integrity in an online registered nurse to baccalaureate in nursing program. The Journal of Continuing Education in Nursing, 41(11), 498-505.
• Hawley, C. S. (1984). The thieves of academe: Plagiarism in the university system. Improving College and University Teaching, 32(1), 35-39. https://doi.org/ 10.3928/00220124-20100701-03
• Hearn Moore, P., Head, J. D., & Griffin, R. B. (2017). Impeding students’ efforts to cheat in online classes. Education, Journal of Learning in Higher, 13(1), 9–23. https://files.eric.ed.gov/ fulltext/EJ1139692.pdf
• Hinman, L. M. (2005). Virtual virtues: Reflections on academic integrity in the age of the Internet. In R. Cavalier (Ed.), The impact of the Internet on our moral lives (pp.49-67). SUNY Press.
• Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The difference between emergency remote teaching and online learning. Educause Review, 27, 1-12.
• Hong, J. C., Lee, Y. F., & Ye, J. H. (2021). Procrastination predicts online self-regulated learning and online learning ineffectiveness during the coronavirus lockdown. Personality and Individual Differences, 174. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110673
• Ison, D. C. (2020). Detection of online contract cheating through stylometry: A pilot study. Online Learning, 24(2), 142-165. http://dx.doi.org/10.24059/olj.v24i2.2096
• Gao, J., Zheng, P., Jia, Y., Chen, H., Mao, Y., Chen, S., ... & Dai, J. (2020). Mental health problems and social media exposure during COVID-19 outbreak. Plos One, 15(4). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0231924
• Harper, R., Bretag, T., & Rundle, K. (2021). Detecting contract cheating: examining the role of assessment type. Higher Education Research & Development, 40(2), 263-278. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2020.1724899
• Howard, R. M. 2007. “Understanding “Internet Plagiarism”.” Computers and Composition 24 (1): 3–15. https://doi:10.1016/j. compcom.2006.12.005
• Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2004). Cooperation and the use of technology. In D. H. Jonassen (Ed.), Handbook of research on educational communications and technology (pp. 785–811). Lawrence Erlbaum.
• Jordan, A. E. (2001). College student cheating: The role of motivation, perceived norms, attitudes, and knowledge of institutional policy. Ethics & Behavior, 11(3), 233–247. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327019EB1103_3
• Juola, P. (2017). Detecting contract cheating via stylometric methods. In Proceedings on the Conference on Plagiarism across Europe and Beyond (pp. 187-198).
• Kennedy, K., Nowak, S., Raghuraman, R., Thomas, J., & Davis, S. F. (2000). Academic dishonesty and distance learning: Student and faculty views. College Student Journal 34(2), 309-314.
• Keuskamp, D., & Sliuzas, R. (2007). Plagiarism prevention or detection? The contribution of text-matching software to education about academic integrity. Journal of Academic Language and Learning, 1(1), A91-A99.
• Kidwell, L. A., & Kent, J. (2008). Integrity at a distance: A study of academic misconduct among university students on and off campus. Accounting Education: An International Journal, 17(S1), S3-S16. https://doi.org/10.1080/09639280802044568
• Kleiner, C., & Lord, M. (1999). The cheating game "Everyone's doing it," from grade school to graduate school. US News and World Report, 127, 54-66.
• Kowalski, R., & Westen, D. (2004). Psychology: Brain, behavior, and culture (3rd ed.). Wiley.
• Lambert, E. G., Hogan, N. L., & Barton, S. M. (2004). The nature of work-family conflict among correctional staff: An exploratory examination. Criminal Justice Review, 29(1), 145-172. https://doi.org/10.1177/073401680402900109
• Lancaster, T. (2019). Profiling the international academic ghost writers who are providing low-cost essays and assignments for the contract cheating industry. Journal of Information, Communication and Ethics in Society, 17(1), 72–86. https://doi.org/10.1108/JICES-04-2018-0040
• Lancaster, T., & Cotarlan, C. (2021). Contract cheating by STEM students through a file sharing website: a Covid-19 pandemic perspective. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 17, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-021-00070-0
• Lim, V. K., & See, S. K. (2001). Attitudes toward, and intentions to report, academic cheating among students in Singapore. Ethics & Behavior, 11(3), 261-274.
• Lines, L. (2016). Ghostwriters guaranteeing grades? The quality of online ghostwriting services available to tertiary students in Australia. Teaching in Higher Education, 21(8), 889–914. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2016.1198759
• Looney, D., & Lusin, N. (2019, June). Enrollments in languages other than English in United States institutions of higher education, Summer 2016 and Fall 2016. Modern Language Association.
• Lozier, K. A. (2012). Student perceptions of academic dishonesty scenarios. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Ball State University.
• Lupton, R. A., Chapman, K. J., & Weiss, J. E. (2000). International perspective: A cross-national exploration of business students’ attitudes, perceptions, and tendencies toward academic dishonesty. Journal of Education for Business, 75(4), 231-235. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832320009599020
• Lynn, M. R. (1986). Determination and quantification of content validity. Nursing Research, 35(6), 382-386.
• Maurer, H. A., Kappe, F., & Zaka, B. (2006). Plagiarism-A survey. Journal of Universal Computer Science, 12(8), 1050-1084.
• McCabe, D., & Trevino, L. (1996). What we know about cheating in college. Change, January/February, 29-33.
• McCabe, D. L., & Trevino, L. K. (1997). Individual and contextual influences on academic dishonesty: A multicampus investigation. Research in Higher Education, 38, 379-396. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1024954224675
• McCabe, D. L., Trevino, L. K., & Butterfield, K. D. (2001). Dishonesty in academic environments: The influence of peer reporting requirements. The Journal of Higher Education, 72(1), 29-45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2001.11778863
• McGee, P. (2013). Supporting academic honesty in online courses. Journal of Educators Online, 10(1). https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1004890.pdf
• McGowan, S. (2016). Breaches of academic integrity using collusion. In T. Bretag (Ed.), Handbook of academic integrity (pp. 221 - 247). Springer. https://doi.org/ 10.1007/978-981-287-098-8_36
• Medway, D., Roper, S., & Gillooly, L. (2018). Contract cheating in UK higher education: A covert investigation of essay mills. British Educational Research Journal, 44(3), 393-418. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3335
• Miller, A., Murdock, T., Anderman, E., & Poindexter, A. (2007). Who are all these cheaters? Characteristics of academically dishonest students. In E. Anderman & T. Murdock (Eds.), Psychology of Academic Cheating (pp. 9-32). Elsevier.
• Mixon, F. (1996). Crime in the classroom. Journal of Economic Education, 27(Summer), 195- 200.
• Newstead, S. E., Franklyn-Stokes, A., & Armstead, P. (1996). Individual differences in student cheating. Journal of Educational Psychology, 88, 229-241.
• Newton, P. (2018). How common is commercial contract cheating in higher education? Frontiers in Education, 3, 1–18. https://doi.org/:10.3389/fedue.2018.00067
• NIH Office of Behavioral and Social Sciences. (2018). Best practices for mixed methods research in the health sciences (2nd ed). National Institutes of Health.
• Nonis, S., & Swift, C. O. (2001). An examination of the relationship between academic dishonesty and workplace dishonesty: A multicampus investigation. Journal of Education for business, 77(2), 69-77. https://doi.org/10.1080/08832320109599052
• O’Neill, H. M., & Pfeiffer, C. A. (2012). The impact of honour codes and perceptions of cheating on academic cheating behaviours, especially for MBA bound undergraduates. Accounting Education, 21(3), 231-245.
• Pajares, M. F. (1992). Teacher’s beliefs and educational research: Cleaning up a messy construct. Review of Educational Research, 62(3), 307-332. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543062003307
• Park, C. (2003). In other (people’s) words: Plagiarism by university students—Literature and lessons. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 28, 471-488.
• Peled, Y., Eshet, Y., & Grinautski, K. (2013). Perceptions regarding the seriousness of academic dishonesty amongst students–A comparison between face-to-face and online courses. In Proceedings of the Chairs conference on instructional technologies research (pp. 69-74).
• Perry, B. (2010). Exploring academic misconduct: Some insights into student behaviour. Active Learning in Higher Education, 11(2), 97-108. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1469787410365657
• Rabi, S. M., Patton, L. R., Fjortoft, N., & Zgarrick, D. P. (2006). Characteristics, prevalence, attitudes, and perceptions of academic dishonesty among pharmacy students. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, 70(4), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.5688/aj700473
• Rogers, C. F. (2006). Faculty perceptions about e-cheating during online testing. Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges, 22(2), 206-212.
• Rogerson, A. M. (2017). Detecting contract cheating in essay and report submissions: Process, patterns, clues, and conversations. International Journal for Educational Integrity, 13(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40979-017-0021-6
• Rohmana, W. I., Kamal, S., Amani, N., & As-Samawi, T. A. (2022). Aca- demic dishonesty in online English as a Foreign Language classroom. EnJourMe (English Journal of Merdeka): Culture, Language, and Teaching of English, 7(2) 230-240, https://doi.org/10.26905/ enjourme.v7i2.8827
• Rowe, N. C. (2004). Cheating in online student assessment: Beyond plagiarism. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 7(2), 1-10.
• Rowland, S., Slade, C., Wong, K. S., & Whiting, B. (2018). ‘Just turn to us’: the persuasive features of contract cheating websites. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 43(4), 652-665. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2017.1391948
• Saleh, A. M., & Meccawy, Z. (2021). EFL female students’ perceptions towards cheating in distance learning programmes. English Language Teaching, 14(1), 29–36. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v14n1p29
• Schmelkin, L. P., Gilbert, K., Spencer, K. J., Pincus, H. S., & Silva, R. (2008). A multidimensional scaling of college students' perceptions of academic dishonesty. The Journal of Higher Education, 79(5), 587-607. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.2008.11772118
• Seeland, J., Stoesz, B. M., & Vogt, L. (2020). Preventing online shopping for completed assessments: Protecting students by blocking access to contract cheating websites on institutional networks. Canadian Perspectives on Academic Integrity, 3(1), 55-69. https://doi.org/10.11575/cpai.v3i1.70256
• Singh, S., & Remenyi, D. (2016). Plagiarism and ghostwriting: The rise in academic misconduct. South African Journal of Science, 112(5–6), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2016/20150300
• Spaulding, M. (2009). Perceptions of academic honesty in online vs. face-to-face classrooms. Journal of Interactive Online Learning. 8, 183–198.
• Stander, M. (2020). Strategies to help university students avoid plagiarism: A focus on translation as an intervention strategy. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 44(2), 156-169. https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2018.1526260
• Stuber-McEwen, D., Wiseley, P., & Hoggatt, S. (2009). Point, click, and cheat: Frequency and type of academic dishonesty in the virtual classroom. Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 12(3), 1-10.
• Trost, K. (2009). Psst, have you ever cheated? A study of academic dishonesty in Sweden. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 34(4), 367–376. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602930801956067
• Valizadeh, M. (2022). Cheating in online learning programs: learners’ perceptions and solutions. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 23(1), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.17718/tojde.1050394
• Walker, M., & Townley, C. (2012). Contract cheating: a new challenge for academic honesty? Journal of Academic Ethics, 10(1), 27-44. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10805-012-9150-y
• Watson, G., & Sottile, J. (2010). Cheating in the digital age: Do students cheat more in online courses? Online Journal of Distance Learning Administration, 8(1), 1-13.
• White, A. (2020, March 23). Amanda White on education for and detection of contract cheating in virus times. Campus Morning Mail. https://campusmorningmail.com.au/news/education-for-and-detection-of-contract-cheating-in-the-age-of-covid-19/
• WHO. (2020). World Health Organization (WHO) Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) advice for the public. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-
• Zwagerman, S. (2008). The scarlet P: Plagiarism, panopticism, and the rhetoric of academic integrity. College Composition and Communication, 59(4), 676-710.