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Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors

Year 2025, Volume: 41 Issue: 3, 936 - 949, 31.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080
https://izlik.org/JA95EL33RA

Abstract

Neutron capture is a key process for detecting and characterizing neutrino interactions in large water-Cherenkov and gadolinium-doped detectors. Its timing and spatial signatures determine how efficiently delayed neutron signals can be separated from prompt backgrounds and therefore set fundamental limits on event reconstruction and background rejection. We present a detailed Geant4 (11.2.2) simulation of neutron capture in pure water and in water doped with 0.1 %, 0.2 %, and 0.5 % gadolinium (Gd) by mass. Primary neutrons were generated isotropically with three initial energy spectra—thermal (0.01–0.1 eV), intermediate (0.1 eV–100 keV), and fast (0.1–10 MeV)—each sampled with a uniform probability distribution. For every material–spectrum combination we recorded four observables: (i) mean neutron-capture time, (ii) capture-time distributions and their cumulative probabilities, (iii) total track length prior to capture, and (iv) capture radius relative to the primary neutron production vertex. The results show that at 0.5 % Gd, the mean capture time falls from roughly 200 µs in pure water to 5–9 µs across all neutron spectra, while the mean capture radius decreases from about 73 mm (thermal)–180 mm (fast) to 11 mm (thermal)–158 mm (fast). These findings quantify the dependence of capture dynamics on both absorber content and neutron energy and provide geometry-independent benchmarks—made possible by the use of a simulation volume large enough to ensure essentially complete neutron capture—for optimizing the time-window selection, fiducial-volume definition, and background suppression of next-generation neutrino detectors.

References

  • Fukuda, S., et al. 2003. The Super-Kamiokande detector. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 501 (2), 418–462
  • Abe, K., et al. 2022. Neutron tagging following atmospheric neutrino events in a water Cherenkov detector. Journal of Instrumentation, 17 (10), P10029.
  • Beacom, J. F., & Vagins, M. R. 2004. Antineutrino spectroscopy with large water Čerenkov detectors. Physical Review Letters, 93 (17), 171101.
  • Abe, K., et al. 2022. First gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1027, 166248.
  • Marti, Ll., et al. 2020. Evaluation of gadolinium’s action on water Cherenkov detector systems with EGADS. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 959, 163549.
  • Abe, K., et al. 2024. Second gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1065, 169480.
  • Bat, A., Tiras, E., Fischer, V. et al. Low energy neutrino detection with a compact water-based liquid scintillator detector. Eur. Phys. J. C 82, 734 (2022).
  • Fischer, V., & Tiras, E. 2020. Water-based Liquid Scintillator detector as a new technology testbed for neutrino studies in Turkey. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 969, 163931.
  • Allison, J., Amako, K., Apostolakis, J., et al. 2016. Recent developments in Geant4. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 835, 186–225.
  • Allison, J., Amako, K., Apostolakis, J., et al. 2006. Geant4 developments and applications. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, 53 (1), 270–278
  • Lasorak, P., & Prouse, N. 2015. TITUS: An Intermediate Distance Detector for the Hyper-Kamiokande Neutrino Beam. ArXiv:1504.08272.
  • Marti, Ll., et al. 2020. Evaluation of gadolinium’s action on water Cherenkov detector systems with EGADS. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 959, 163549
  • Li, V. A., Dazeley, S. A., Bergevin, M., & Bernstein, A. 2022. Scalability of gadolinium-doped-water Cherenkov detectors for nuclear nonproliferation. Physical Review Applied, 18 (3), 034059.
  • Back, A. R., et al. 2017. Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment (ANNIE): Preliminary Results and Physics Phase Proposal. arXiv:1707.08222.

Nötrino Dedektörleri İçin Saf ve Gadolinyum Katkılı Suda Nötron Yakalanmasının Geant4 Simülasyonu

Year 2025, Volume: 41 Issue: 3, 936 - 949, 31.12.2025
https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080
https://izlik.org/JA95EL33RA

Abstract

Nötron yakalanması, büyük su-Çerenkov ve gadolinyum katkılı dedektörlerde nötrino etkileşimlerini tespit etmek ve karakterize etmek için temel bir süreçtir. Bu olayın zamanlama ve konumsal imzaları, gecikmiş nötron sinyallerinin anlık arka planlardan ne kadar verimli ayrılabileceğini belirler ve bu nedenle olay yeniden yapılandırması ile arka plan bastırma üzerinde temel sınırlar koyar. Bu çalışmada, kütlece %0,1, %0,2 ve %0,5 gadolinyum (Gd) katkılı su ile saf sudaki nötron yakalanmasını ayrıntılı biçimde inceleyen bir Geant4 (11.2.2) simülasyonu sunulmaktadır. Birincil nötronlar, her biri üniform olasılık dağılımıyla örneklenen üç farklı başlangıç enerji spektrumunda—termal (0,01–0,1 eV), epitermal (0,1 eV–100 keV) ve hızlı (0,1–10 MeV)—izotropik olarak üretilmiştir. Her malzeme–spektrum kombinasyonu için dört gözlenebilir nicelik kaydedilmiştir: (i) ortalama nötron yakalanma süresi, (ii) yakalanma süresi dağılımları ve bunların kümülatif olasılıkları, (iii) yakalanmadan önceki toplam iz uzunluğu ve (iv) nötronun oluştuğu noktaya göre yakalanma yarıçapı. Sonuçlar, %0,5 Gd derişiminde saf sudaki ortalama yakalanma süresinin yaklaşık 200 µs’ten tüm nötron spektrumları için 5–9 µs aralığına düştüğünü ve ortalama yakalanma yarıçapının ise yaklaşık 73 mm (termal)–180 mm (hızlı) değerlerinden 11 mm (termal)–158 mm (hızlı) aralığına gerilediğini göstermektedir. Bu bulgular, yakalanma dinamiklerinin hem soğurucu içeriğine hem de nötron enerjisine olan bağımlılığını nicelendirmektedir ve tüm nötronların neredeyse tamamen yakalanmasını sağlayacak kadar büyük bir simülasyon hacmi kullanılması sayesinde zaman aralığı seçiminin, faydalı hacim tanımının ve arka plan bastırmanın optimize edilmesi için geometriye bağımsız kıyas ölçütleri sunmaktadır.

References

  • Fukuda, S., et al. 2003. The Super-Kamiokande detector. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 501 (2), 418–462
  • Abe, K., et al. 2022. Neutron tagging following atmospheric neutrino events in a water Cherenkov detector. Journal of Instrumentation, 17 (10), P10029.
  • Beacom, J. F., & Vagins, M. R. 2004. Antineutrino spectroscopy with large water Čerenkov detectors. Physical Review Letters, 93 (17), 171101.
  • Abe, K., et al. 2022. First gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1027, 166248.
  • Marti, Ll., et al. 2020. Evaluation of gadolinium’s action on water Cherenkov detector systems with EGADS. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 959, 163549.
  • Abe, K., et al. 2024. Second gadolinium loading to Super-Kamiokande. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 1065, 169480.
  • Bat, A., Tiras, E., Fischer, V. et al. Low energy neutrino detection with a compact water-based liquid scintillator detector. Eur. Phys. J. C 82, 734 (2022).
  • Fischer, V., & Tiras, E. 2020. Water-based Liquid Scintillator detector as a new technology testbed for neutrino studies in Turkey. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 969, 163931.
  • Allison, J., Amako, K., Apostolakis, J., et al. 2016. Recent developments in Geant4. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 835, 186–225.
  • Allison, J., Amako, K., Apostolakis, J., et al. 2006. Geant4 developments and applications. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, 53 (1), 270–278
  • Lasorak, P., & Prouse, N. 2015. TITUS: An Intermediate Distance Detector for the Hyper-Kamiokande Neutrino Beam. ArXiv:1504.08272.
  • Marti, Ll., et al. 2020. Evaluation of gadolinium’s action on water Cherenkov detector systems with EGADS. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment, 959, 163549
  • Li, V. A., Dazeley, S. A., Bergevin, M., & Bernstein, A. 2022. Scalability of gadolinium-doped-water Cherenkov detectors for nuclear nonproliferation. Physical Review Applied, 18 (3), 034059.
  • Back, A. R., et al. 2017. Accelerator Neutrino Neutron Interaction Experiment (ANNIE): Preliminary Results and Physics Phase Proposal. arXiv:1707.08222.
There are 14 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects High Energy Astrophysics and Galactic Cosmic Rays
Journal Section Research Article
Authors

Mustafa Kandemir 0000-0002-3642-9699

Submission Date October 7, 2025
Acceptance Date November 24, 2025
Publication Date December 31, 2025
DOI https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080
IZ https://izlik.org/JA95EL33RA
Published in Issue Year 2025 Volume: 41 Issue: 3

Cite

APA Kandemir, M. (2025). Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, 41(3), 936-949. https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080
AMA 1.Kandemir M. Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2025;41(3):936-949. doi:10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080
Chicago Kandemir, Mustafa. 2025. “Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors”. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 41 (3): 936-49. https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080.
EndNote Kandemir M (December 1, 2025) Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 41 3 936–949.
IEEE [1]M. Kandemir, “Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors”, Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 41, no. 3, pp. 936–949, Dec. 2025, doi: 10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080.
ISNAD Kandemir, Mustafa. “Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors”. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi 41/3 (December 1, 2025): 936-949. https://doi.org/10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080.
JAMA 1.Kandemir M. Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2025;41:936–949.
MLA Kandemir, Mustafa. “Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors”. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 41, no. 3, Dec. 2025, pp. 936-49, doi:10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080.
Vancouver 1.Mustafa Kandemir. Geant4 Simulation of Neutron Capture in Pure and Gadolinium-Doped Water for Neutrino Detectors. Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Fen Bilimleri Dergisi. 2025 Dec. 1;41(3):936-49. doi:10.65520/erciyesfen.1799080

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