Çevre Vergileri, Hava Taşımacılığı ve CO2 Emisyonları İlişkisi: Avrupa Ülkeleri Üzerine Bir Çalışma

Öz

Hava taşımacılığından kaynaklanan CO2 emisyonları konusu önemli çevresel kaygılar yaratmaya devam etmektedir. Havacılık sektörü büyüdükçe karbon ayak izi de büyümekte ve iklim değişikliğine katkıda bulunmaktadır. Bunu ele almak için hükümetler ve politika yapıcılar hava taşımacılığına çevre vergileri uygulamayı düşünmektedir. Bu vergiler, havayolu şirketlerini daha temiz teknolojilere yatırım yaparak ve verimliliği artırarak emisyonları azaltmaya teşvik etmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Ancak, çevresel sürdürülebilirlik ve ekonomik uygulanabilirlik arasında bir denge bulmak, bu karmaşık ve birbirine bağlı küresel sektörde bir zorluk olmaya devam etmektedir. Bu çalışma, 1995-2021 yılları arasında 25 Avrupa ülkesinde CO2 emisyonları, çevre vergileri, fosil yakıt tüketimi, turizm ve hava taşımacılığı arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Korelasyonu tahmin etmek için Panel Vektör Otoregresyon modeli kullanılmaktadır. Sonuçlar, mevcut çevre vergilerinin CO2 emisyonlarını azaltmak için yeterli olmadığını desteklemektedir. Bulgular ayrıca fosil yakıt tüketimi, turizm ve hava taşımacılığının CO2 emisyonlarında artışa yol açtığını göstermektedir. Ayrıca, hava taşımacılığı, turizm, çevre vergileri ve CO2 emisyonları arasında çeşitli nedensellikler bulunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Hava Taşımacılığı
• Çevre Vergisi
• CO2 Emisyonu
• PVAR

The Relationship between Environmental Taxes, Air Transportation and CO2 Emissions: A Study on European Countries

Abstract

The topic of CO2 emissions from air transportation remains a major environmental concern. As the aviation industry expands, so does its carbon footprint, which contributes to climate change. To tackle this issue, policymakers and governments are exploring the possibility of implementing environmental taxes on air transportation. The objective of these taxes is to encourage airlines to invest in cleaner technologies and improve efficiency to reduce emissions. However, achieving a balance between environmental sustainability and economic viability remains a challenge in the complex and interconnected global sector of air transport. This study analyzes the relationship between CO2 emissions, environmental taxes, fossil fuel consumption, tourism, and air transport in 25 European countries from 1995 to 2021. To estimate the correlation, a Panel Vector Autoregression model is used. The results indicate that current environmental taxes are inadequate in reducing CO2 emissions. Additionally, the findings demonstrate that CO2 emissions increase due to fossil fuel consumption, tourism, and air transportation. Furthermore, there are several causal connections between air transportation, tourism, environmental taxes, and CO2 emissions.

Keywords

• Air Transportation
• Environmental Taxes
• CO2 Emissions
• PVAR

References

1. Abrigo, M. R. M., & Love, I. (2016). “Estimation of panel vector autoregression in Stata”. Içinde The Stata Journal (C. 16, Sayı 3).
2. Ahmad, R. (2023). “Impact of Economic Growth, Urbanization and Transportation on Environmental Degradation on Selected Developing Countries”. Review of Education Administration and Law. https://doi.org/10.47067/real.v6i2.340
3. Al Shammre, A. S., Benhamed, A., Ben-Salha, O., & Jaidi, Z. (2023). “Do Environmental Taxes Affect Carbon Dioxide Emissions in OECD Countries? Evidence From the Dynamic Panel Threshold Model”. Systems. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems11060307
4. Ali, K. A., Ahmad, M. I., & Yusup, Y. (2020). “Issues, Impacts, and Mitigations of Carbon Dioxide Emissions in the Building Sector”. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12187427
5. Ali, M. U., Gong, Z., Ali, M. U., Wu, X., & Yao, C. (2021). “Fossil energy consumption, economic development, inward FDI impact on CO2 emissions in Pakistan: Testing EKC hypothesis through ARDL model”. International Journal of Finance and Economics, 26(3), 3210-3221. https://doi.org/10.1002/ijfe.1958
6. Ashraf, M. A., Rehman, H. U., & Chaudhry, I. S. (2020). “The Impact of Economic Growth, Foreign Direct Investment, Urbanization, Fossils Fuel Consumption on Environmental Degradation in Emerging Asian Economies”. Journal of Business and Social Review in Emerging Economies. https://doi.org/10.26710/jbsee.v6i4.1480
7. Aslan, A., Ocal, O., Ozsolak, B., & Ozturk, I. (2022). “Renewable energy and economic growth relationship under the oil reserve ownership: Evidence from panel VAR approach”. Renewable Energy, 188, 402-410. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.RENENE.2022.02.039
8. Aye, G. C., Gupta, R., Lau, C. K. M., & Sheng, X. (2019). “Is there a role for uncertainty in forecasting output growth in OECD countries? Evidence from a time-varying parameter-panel vector autoregressive model”. Applied Economics, 51(33), 3624-3631. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2019.1584373

9. Bakhsh, K., Akmal, T., Ahmad, T., & Abbas, Q. (2021). “Investigating the Nexus Among Sulfur Dioxide Emission, Energy Consumption, and Economic Growth: Empirical Evidence From Pakistan”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-15898-9
10. Bandyopadhyay, A., Rej, S., Abbasi, K. R., & Awan, A. (2023). “Nexus between tourism, hydropower, and CO2 emissions in India: fresh insights from ARDL and cumulative fourier frequency domain causality”. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 25(10), 10903-10927. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02511-3
11. Bhaktikul, K., Aroonsrimorakot, S., Laiphrakpam, M., & Paisantanakij, W. (2021). “Toward a low-carbon tourism for sustainable development: a study based on a royal project for highland community development in Chiang Rai, Thailand”. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 23(7), 10743-10762. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-020-01083-4
12. Bi, C., & Zeng, J. (2019). “Nonlinear and Spatial Effects of Tourism on Carbon Emissions in China: A Spatial Econometric Approach”. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16183353
13. Bian, Y., Song, K., & Bai, J. (2021). “Impact of Chinese market segmentation on regional collaborative governance of environmental pollution: A new approach to complex system theory”. Growth and Change, 52(1), 283-309. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12446
14. Bruvoll, A., & Larsen, B. M. (2004). “Greenhouse Gas Emissions in Norway: Do Carbon Taxes Work?” Energy Policy. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0301-4215(03)00151-4
15. Cetin, M. A., & Bakirtas, I. (2020). “The long-run environmental impacts of economic growth, financial development, and energy consumption: Evidence from emerging markets”. Energy and Environment, 31(4), 634-655. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X19882373
16. Dincă, G., Bărbuță, M., Negri, C., Dincă, D., & Model, L. S. (2022). “The impact of governance quality and educational level on environmental performance”. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.950683
17. Dwyer, L., Forsyth, P., Spurr, R., & Hoque, S. (2010). “Estimating the carbon footprint of Australian tourism”. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(3), 355-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580903513061
18. Fan, Y., Ullah, I., Rehman, A., Hussain, A., & Zeeshan, M. (2022). “Does tourism increase CO2 emissions and health spending in Mexico? New evidence from nonlinear ARDL approach”. International Journal of Health Planning and Management, 37(1), 242-257. https://doi.org/10.1002/hpm.3322
19. Fatima, N., Zheng, Y., & Ni, G. (2022). “Effect of Economic Growth, FDI Inflows, Trade Openness, Environment Related Technologies, and Environment Related Revenues Taxes on CO2 Emission With Pooled Mean Group (PMG) Panel ARDL”. 13 October 2022, PREPRINT (Version 1) available at Research Square https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-2039899/v1
20. Fatur Šikić, T. (2023). “The Impact of Tourism and Financial Development on Carbon Emissions: Evidence from EU Mediterrenean Countries”. Tourism & Hospitality Industry, 69-82. https://doi.org/10.20867/thi.26.14
21. Fuinhas, J. A., Koengkan, M., & Belucio, M. (2021).” Exploring the causality between economic growth, financial development and inflation in sixteen high-income countries”. Revista de Estudos Sociais, 22(45). https://doi.org/10.19093/res11094
22. García Martín, C. J., & Herrero, B. (2020). “Do board characteristics affect environmental performance? A study of EU firms”. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, 27(1), 74-94. https://doi.org/10.1002/csr.1775
23. Gossling, S. (2009). “Carbon neutral destinations: A conceptual analysis”. Içinde Journal of Sustainable Tourism (C. 17, Sayı 1, ss. 17-37). https://doi.org/10.1080/09669580802276018
24. Granger, C. W. J. (1969). “Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-spectral Methods”. Econometrica, 37(3), 424-438.
25. Grofelnik, H. (2023). “Determining the Impact of Tourism on the Environment by Extracting the Carbon Footprint of Road Infrastructure in Natural Protected Areas – Case Study of the Učka Nature Park”. https://doi.org/10.20867/tosee.07.10
26. Habiba, U., & Xinbang, C. (2022). “An Investigation of the Dynamic Relationships Between Financial Development, Renewable Energy Use, and CO2 Emissions”. SAGE Open, 12(4). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440221134794
27. Hernández-Martín, R., & Padrón-ávila, H. (2021). “The carbon footprint of airport ground access as part of an outbound holiday trip”. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(16). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13169085
28. Higham, J., Cohen, S., Cavaliere, C. T., Reis, A. C., & Finkler, W. (2016). “Climate Change, Tourist Air Travel and Radical Emissions Reduction”. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.10.100
29. Hosny, N. A., Yasser, N., & Raafat, A. (2023). “Assessing the Impact of Financial Inclusion on Economic Growth – Evidence From Selected European Countries”. Management Science Journal, 2(2), 80-101.
30. Huang, C., An, J., Wang, H., Liu, Q., Tian, J., Wang, Q., Hu, Q., Yan, R., Shen, Y., Duan, Y., Fu, Q., Shen, J., Ye, H., Wang, M., Wei, C., Cheng, Y., & Su, H. (2021). “Highly Resolved Dynamic Emissions of Air Pollutants and Greenhouse Gas CO2 During COVID-19 Pandemic in East China”. Environmental Science & Technology Letters. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.estlett.1c00600
31. Hussain, M. S., Nawaz, M. A., Ahmad, T. I., & Bhatti, M. A. (2021). “Environmental Governance and Green Energy: An Administrative Toolkit to Reduce Environmental Degradation”. Irasd Journal of Management. https://doi.org/10.52131/jom.2021.0303.0049
32. Ibe, G. I. (2023). “Asymmetric Effect of Environmental Tax on CO2 Emissions Embodied in Domestic Final Demand in South Africa: A NARDL Approach”. African Development Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8268.12727
33. International Transport Forum. (2021). “Corporate Partnership Board CPB Decarbonising Air Transport Acting Now for the Future Decarbonising Transport”. www.itf-oecd.org
34. Irianto, I. K., Wisnumurti, A. A., Aryaningsih, N. N., & Reeve, D. (2020). “Review of Government Policy Toward Social Welfare and Sustainabillity of The Tourism Industry”. SOSHUM : Jurnal Sosial dan Humaniora, 10(2), 115-121. https://doi.org/10.31940/soshum.v10i2.1791
35. Jiao, T., Zhao, X., & Li, X. (2023). “The sooner, the better? Interactions of stakeholders in online food delivery service platforms”. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing and Logistics, 35(5), 1134-1156. https://doi.org/10.1108/APJML-01-2022-0039
36. Jungo, J., Madaleno, M., & Botelho, A. (2022). “The Relationship Between Inclusion, Financial Innovation and Economic Growth in Sub-Saharan African Countries: A PVAR Approach”. Review of Economics and Finance, 49-59.
37. Khan, R. (2021). “Beta Decoupling Relationship Between CO2 Emissions by GDP, Energy Consumption, Electricity Production, Value-Added Industries, and Population in China”. Plos One. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0249444
38. Kilinc-Ata, N., & Likhachev, V. L. (2022). “Validation of the environmental Kuznets curve hypothesis and role of carbon emission policies in the case of Russian Federation”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-022-20316-9
39. Koengkan, M., Fuinhas, J. A., & Santiago, R. (2020). The Relationship Between CO2 Emissions, Renewable and Non-Renewable Energy Consumption, Economic Growth, and Urbanisation in the Southern Common Market. Journal of Environmental Economics and Policy. https://doi.org/10.1080/21606544.2019.1702902
40. Kohn, M. (1996). Energy, Environment and Climate: Economic Instruments. Energy & Environment, 7(2), 147-168. https://doi.org/10.1177/0958305X9600700204
41. Kuldasheva, Z. (2023). Do Tourism and Renewable Energy Influence CO2 Emissions in Tourism-Dependent Countries? International Journal of Energy Economics and Policy. https://doi.org/10.32479/ijeep.14410
42. Leitão, N. C., & Balsalobre‐Lorente, D. (2020). The Linkage Between Economic Growth, Renewable Energy, Tourism, CO2 Emissions, and International Trade: The Evidence for the European Union. Energies. https://doi.org/10.3390/en13184838
43. Love, I., & Zicchino, L. (2006). Financial development and dynamic investment behavior: Evidence from panel VAR. Quarterly Review of Economics and Finance, 46(2), 190-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.qref.2005.11.007
44. Lv, Z., Y. Chu, A. M., McAleer, M., & Wong, W. (2019). Modelling Economic Growth, Carbon Emissions, and Fossil Fuel Consumption in China: Cointegration and Multivariate Causality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16214176
45. Martins, T., Barreto, A. C., Souza, F. M., & Souza, A. M. (2021). Fossil fuels consumption and carbon dioxide emissions in G7 countries: Empirical evidence from ARDL bounds testing approach. Environmental Pollution, 291, 118093. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.ENVPOL.2021.118093
46. Mensah, I. A., Sun, M., Gao, C., Omari-Sasu, A. Y., Zhu, D., Ampimah, B. C., & Quarcoo, A. (2019). Analysis on the nexus of economic growth, fossil fuel energy consumption, CO2 emissions and oil price in Africa based on a PMG panel ARDL approach. Journal of Cleaner Production, 228, 161-174. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2019.04.281
47. Mhadhbi, M., Gallali, M. I., Goutte, S., & Guesmi, K. (2021). On the asymmetric relationship between stock market development, energy efficiency and environmental quality: A nonlinear analysis. International Review of Financial Analysis, 77, 101840. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.IRFA.2021.101840
48. Miceikienė, A., Gesevičienė, K., & Rimkuvienė, D. (2021). Assessment of the dependence of GHG emissions on the support and taxes in the EU countries. Sustainability (Switzerland), 13(14). https://doi.org/10.3390/su13147650
49. Nguyen, A. T. (2019). Examining the Relationships Between Energy Use, Fossil Fuel Consumption, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Economic Growth in Southeast Asia. Journal of Asian Energy Studies. https://doi.org/10.24112/jaes.030005
50. Niedzielski, P., Zioło, M., Kozuba, J., Kuzionko-Ochrymiuk, E., & Drop, N. (2021). Analysis of the relationship of the degree of aviation sector development with greenhouse gas emissions and measures of economic development in the european union countries. Energies, 14(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/en14133801
51. Noubissi, E. D. (2023). Economic Impact of the Carbon Tax: Evaluation of the Reduction in CO₂ Emissions. Natural Resources Forum. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12348
52. Olaoye, O. O., Orisadare, M., & Okorie, U. U. (2019). Government expenditure and economic growth nexus in ECOWAS countries. Journal of Economic and Administrative Sciences, 36(3), 204-225. https://doi.org/10.1108/jeas-01-2019-0010
53. Padungsaksawasdi, C. (2020). On the dynamic relationship between gold investor sentiment index and stock market: A sectoral analysis. International Journal of Managerial Finance, 16(3), 372-392. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMF-11-2018-0334
54. Palaia, G., Zanetti, D., Salem, K. A., Cipolla, V., & Binante, V. (2021). THEA-CODE: A Design Tool for the Conceptual Design of Hybrid-Electric Aircraft With Conventional or Unconventional Airframe Configurations. Mechanics & Industry. https://doi.org/10.1051/meca/2021012
55. Prasad, M. (2022). Hidden benefits and dangers of carbon tax. PLOS Climate, 1(7), e0000052. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pclm.0000052
56. Quasem Al-Amin, A., Hamid Jaafar, A., & Siwar, C. (2010). Climate change mitigation and policy concern for prioritization. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management, 2(4), 418-425. https://doi.org/10.1108/17568691011089936
57. Raza, S. A., Sharif, A., Wong, W., & Abd Karim, M. Z. (2016). Tourism Development and Environmental Degradation in the United States: Evidence From Wavelet-Based Analysis. Current Issues in Tourism. https://doi.org/10.1080/13683500.2016.1192587
58. Rico, A., Martínez-Blanco, J., Montlleó, M., Rodríguez, G., Tavares, N., Arias, A., & Oliver-Solà, J. (2019). “Carbon footprint of tourism in Barcelona”. Tourism Management, 70, 491-504. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.TOURMAN.2018.09.012
59. Robaina, M., Moutinho, V., & Costa, R. (2016). “Change in Energy-Related CO2 (Carbon Dioxide) Emissions in Portuguese Tourism: A Decomposition Analysis From 2000 to 2008”. Journal of Cleaner Production. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2015.03.023
60. Ronoowah, R. K., & Seetanah, B. (2022). “Corporate governance, capital structure, and firm performance: a panel VAR approach”. SN Business & Economics, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-022-00382-4
61. Samour, A., Isiksal, A. Z., & Resatoglu, N. G. (2019). “Testing the impact of banking sector development on Turkey’S CO 2 emissions”. Applied Ecology and Environmental Research, 17(3), 6497-6513. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1703_64976513
62. Sari, K. E., Sulistyo, D. E., & Utomo, D. M. (2017). “Reduction of CO2 emission from transportation activities in the area of Pasar Besar in Malang City”. IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, 70(1). https://doi.org/10.1088/1755-1315/70/1/012018
63. Sarkodıe, S. A., Ntiamoah, E. B., & Li, D. (2019). “Panel Heterogeneous Distribution Analysis of Trade and Modernized Agriculture on CO2 Emissions: The Role of Renewable and Fossil Fuel Energy Consumption”. Natural Resources Forum. https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12183
64. Savranlar, B. (2024). “The Role of Environmental Tax on the Environmental Quality in EU Counties: Evidence From Panel Vector Autoregression Approach”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-024-33632-z
65. Sezgin, F. H., Bayar, Y., Herta, L., & Gavriletea, M. D. (2021). “Do Environmental Stringency Policies and Human Development Reduce CO2 Emissions? Evidence From G7 and BRICS Economies”. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18136727
66. Sharif, A., Afshan, S., Chrea, S., Amel, A., & Khan, S. A. R. (2020). “The role of tourism, transportation and globalization in testing environmental Kuznets curve in Malaysia: new insights from quantile ARDL approach”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 27(20), 25494-25509. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-08782-5
67. Silajdzic, S., & Mehić, E. (2018). “Do Environmental Taxes Pay Off? The Impact of Energy and Transport Taxes on CO2 Emissions in Transition Economies”. South East European Journal of Economics and Business. https://doi.org/10.2478/jeb-2018-0016
68. Sommer, J. M., & Hargrove, A. (2020). “Power and politics in the world-system: A cross-national analysis of environmental governance”. Journal of World-Systems Research, 26(2), 263-287. https://doi.org/10.5195/jwsr.2020.998
69. Susanty, A., Puspitasari, N. B., Saptadi, S., & Siregar, S. D. (2020). “Using System Dynamics Approach to Build Policy Scenario for Reducing CO2 Emission Resulted From Tourism Travel to Karimunjawa”. Kybernetes. https://doi.org/10.1108/k-09-2019-0624
70. Tang, M., & Shou-zhong, G. E. (2018). “Accounting for Carbon Emissions Associated With Tourism-Related Consumption”. Tourism Economics. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816618754691
71. Tang, Z. K., Shang, J., Shi, C., Liu, Z., & Bi, K. (2014). “Decoupling Indicators of CO2 Emissions From the Tourism Industry in China: 1990–2012”. Ecological Indicators. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2014.06.041
72. Teng, Y., Cox, A., & Chatziantoniou, I. (2021). “Environmental Degradation, Economic Growth and Tourism Development in Chinese Regions”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-12567-9
73. Tian, Q., Hu, A., Zhang, Y., & Meng, Y. (2023). “The impact of export tax rebate reform on industrial exporters’ soot emissions: Evidence from China”. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.1101102
74. Ullah, I., Rehman, A., Svobodova, L., Akbar, A., Shah, M. H., Zeeshan, M., & Rehman, M. A. (2022). “Investigating Relationships Between Tourism, Economic Growth, and CO2 Emissions in Brazil: An Application of the Nonlinear ARDL Approach”. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.843906
75. Ullah, S., Nadeem, M., Ali, K., & Abbas, S. (2021). “Fossil Fuel, Industrial Growth and Inward FDI Impact on CO2 Emissions in Vietnam: Testing the EKC Hypothesis”. Management of Environmental Quality an International Journal. https://doi.org/10.1108/meq-03-2021-0051
76. Ulucak, R., Khan, D., & Kassouri, Y. (2020). “An Assessment of the Environmental Sustainability Corridor: Investigating the Non‐linear Effects of Environmental Taxation on CO2 Emissions”. Sustainable Development. https://doi.org/10.1002/sd.2057
77. Wang, M. C., & Wang, C. S. (2018). “Tourism, the environment, and energy policies”. Tourism Economics, 24(7), 821-838. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354816618781458
78. Wolde‐Rufael, Y., & Mulat-Weldemeskel, E. (2021). “Do Environmental Taxes and Environmental Stringency Policies Reduce CO2 Emissions? Evidence From 7 Emerging Economies”. Environmental Science and Pollution Research. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11475-8
79. Wolde‐Rufael, Y., & Mulat-Weldemeskel, E. (2022). “Effectiveness of Environmental Taxes and Environmental Stringent Policies on CO2 Emissions: The European Experience”. Environment Development and Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-022-02262-1
80. Xynas, L. (2011). “Climate change mitigation: Carbon tax - Is it the better answer for Australia?” Australian Tax Forum, 26(3), 339-395. https://search.informit.org/doi/10.3316/informit.609133019416692
81. Yorucu, V. (2016). “Growth Impact of CO2emissions Caused by Tourist Arrivals in Turkey”. International Journal of Climate Change Strategies and Management. https://doi.org/10.1108/ijccsm-12-2014-0148
82. Zhang, Z., & Baranzini, A. (2003). “What Do We Know About Carbon Taxes? An Inquiry Into Their Impacts on Competitiveness and Distribution of Income”. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.394080
83. Zimon, G., Pattak, D. C., Voumik, L. C., Akter, S., Kaya, F., Walasek, R., & Kochański, K. (2023). “The Impact of Fossil Fuels, Renewable Energy, and Nuclear Energy on South Korea’s Environment Based on the STIRPAT Model: ARDL, FMOLS, and CCR Approaches”. Energies, 16(17). https://doi.org/10.3390/en16176198