A Scale Proposal for COVID-19-related Social Stigmatization: The Psychometric Properties of the COVID-19 Stigmatization Scale

Abstract

Background: Social stigmatization is one of the most important results of the COVID-19 pandemic. The aim of the present study is to develop a measurement tool for assessing COVID-19-related stigma. Materials and Methods: The sample of the study consisted of 324 participants who were formerly diagnosed with COVID-19. Measurement regarding the validity of the COVID-19 Stigmatization Scale was evaluated with exploratory analysis. Results: Females accounted for 50.3% (n = 163) of the participants, and the mean age of the participants was 35.35  11.23 . The internal consistency coefficient of the scale was 0.95. The internal consistency coefficients of the subscales were .92 for “anticipatory anxiety”, .90 for “external stigmatization,” .89 for “negative self-image,” .84 for “contagion anxiety,” .90 for “disclosure anxiety,” and .87 for “internal stigmatization.” The total variance explained by the scale was 61.96%. Conclusions: The findings indicated that the COVID-19 Stigmatization Scale, consisting of 44 items in six subscales, is a valid measurement tool for COVID-19 related social stigma.

Keywords

• COVID-19
• pandemic
• stigma
• scale development

COVID-19 İle İlgili Sosyal Damgalama İçin Bir Ölçek Önerisi: COVID-19 Damgalama Ölçeğinin Psikometrik Özellikleri

Abstract

Amaç: COVID-19 pandemisinin önemli sonuçlarından biri sosyal damgalanmadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı, COVID-19 ile ilişkili damgalanmayı değerlendirmek için bir ölçüm aracı geliştirmektir. Materyal ve Metod: Araştırmanın örneklemini, daha önce COVID-19 tanısı almış 324 katılımcı oluşturdu. COVID-19 Damgalama Ölçeği'nin geçerliliğine ilişkin ölçümler, açımlayıcı faktör analizi ile değerlendirildi. Bulgular: Katılımcıların %50,3'ünü (n=163) kadınlar oluşturdu ve katılımcıların yaş ortalaması 35,35±11,23 idi. Ölçeğin iç tutarlılık katsayısı 0.95 idi. Alt ölçeklerin iç tutarlılık katsayıları “beklenti kaygısı” için .92, “dışsal damgalanma” için .90, “olumsuz benlik imajı” için .89, “bulaş kaygısı” için .84, “ortaya çıkma kaygısı” için .90 ve “içsel damgalama” için .87 saptandı. Ölçeğin açıkladığı toplam varyans %61.96 idi. Sonuç: Bulgularımız, altı alt ölçekli 44 maddeden oluşan COVID-19 Damgalama Ölçeği'nin COVID-19 ile ilgili sosyal damgalanmayı değerlendirmek için geçerli bir ölçüm aracı olduğunu göstermiştir.

Keywords

• COVID-19
• pandemi
• damgalanma
• ölçek geliştirme

References

1. 1. Goffman E. Stigma: Notes on the management of spoiled identity. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1963.
2. 2. Link BG, Phelan JC. Conceptualizing stigma. Annu Rev Sociol. 2001;27:363-385.
3. 3. Williams J, Gonzalez-Medina D. Infectious diseases and social stigma. Appl Technol Innov. 2011;4:58-70.
4. 4. Daftary A. HIV and tuberculosis: the construction and management of double stigma. Soc Sci Med. 2012;74:1512–1519.
5. 5. Farag E, Nour M, Marufu O, Sikkema R, Al Romaihi H, Al Thani M et al. The hidden epidemic: MERS-CoV-related stigma observations from the field, Qatar 2012-2015. Int J Infect Dis. 2016;45:332.
6. 6. Person B, Sy F, Holton K, Govert B, Liang A. Fear and stigma: the epidemic within the SARS outbreak. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10:358.
7. 7. Baugher AR, Beer L, Fagan JL, Mattson CL, Freedman M, Skarbinski J et al. Prevalence of internalized HIV-related stigma among HIV-infected adults in care, United States, 2011–2013. AIDS Behav. 2017;21:2600-2608.
8. 8. Berger BE, Ferrans CE, Lashley FR. Measuring stigma in people with HIV: Psychometric assessment of the HIV stigma scale. Res Nurs Health. 2001;24:518-529.

9. 9. https://www.who.int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019?gclid=EAIaIQobChMIndXB547O7QIVwwZ7Ch3NGwSAEAAYASAAEgIHc_D_BwE
10. 10. https://covid19.saglik.gov.tr/TR-66935/genel-koronavirus-tablosu.html
11. 11. Taylor S, Landry CA, Rachor GS, Paluszek MM, Asmundson GJ. Fear and avoidance of healthcare workers: An important, under-recognized form of stigmatization during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Anxiety Disord. 2020;75:102289
12. 12. Bagcchi S. Stigma during the COVID-19 pandemic. Lancet Infect Dis. 2020; 20:782.
13. 13. Baldassarre A, Giorgi G, Alessio F, Lulli LG, Arcangeli G, Mucci N. Stigma and discrimination (SAD) at the time of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. Int J Environ Res. 2020;17:634.
14. 14. Abdelhafiz AS, Alorabi M. Social stigma: the hidden threat of COVID-19. Front Public Health. 2020;8:429.
15. 15. Sotgiu G, Dobler CC. Social stigma in the time of coronavirus disease 2019. Eur Respir J. 2020;56:2002461.
16. 16. Outbreaks of xenophobia in West as coronavirus spread.The Guardian.https:// www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/31/spate-of-anti-chinese-incidents- in-italy-amid-coronavirus-panic. [Accessed 23 April 2020]
17. 17. World Health Organization, UNICEF, IFFR. (2020). Social Stigma associated with COVID-19. A guide to preventing and addressing social stigma https://www.epiwin.com/sites/epiwin/files/content/ attachments/2020-02- 24/COVID19%20Stigma%20Guide%20 24022020_1.pdf.
18. 18. Villa S, Jaramillo E, Mangioni D, Bandera A, Gori A, Raviglione MC. Stigma at the time of the COVID-19 pandemic. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020;26:1450-1452.
19. 19. Nochaiwong S, Ruengorn C, Awiphan R, Kanjanarat P, Ruanta Y, Phosuya C, et al. COVID-19 Public Stigma Scale (COVID-PSS): development, validation, psychometric analysis and interpretation. BMJ Open. 2021;11(11):e048241.
20. 20. Mostafa A, Mostafa NS, Ismail N. Validity and Reliability of a COVID-19 Stigma Scale Using Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis in a Sample of Egyptian Physicians: E16-COVID19-S. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18(10):5451.
21. 21. Bhanot D, Singh T, Verma SK, Sharad S. Stigma and Discrimination During COVID-19 Pandemic. Front Public Health. 2021;8:577018.
22. 22. Kaiser H. An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika. 1974;39:31-36.
23. 23. Matsunaga M. How to Factor-Analyze Your Data Right: Do's, Don'ts, and How-To's. Int J Psychol Res. 2010;3:97-110.
24. 24. George D, Mallery P. SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference. 11.0 update (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 2003.