Tersine Göç Eğilimi ve Diaspora Ağları: Almanya'daki Yüksek Nitelikli Türklerin Tersine Göç Eğilimlerini Etkileyen Faktörler

Year 2022, , 182 - 198, 30.09.2022

Atakan Durmaz , Hakan Pabuçcu , Gökhan Kömür

https://doi.org/10.33709/ictimaiyat.1088129

Abstract

Bu çalışmada, uluslararası göç eğilimleri ve bu eğilimlere neden olan faktörler incelenerek, özellikle Almanya'daki nitelikli Türk göçmenlerin Türkiye'ye yönelik tersine göç eğilimleri ortaya çıkartılmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu çalışma kapsamında 15/11/2018 ile 30/04/2019 tarihleri arasında Almanya’da bir saha çalışması gerçekleştirilmiş ve toplamda 1.127 katılımcı, 451 öğrenci (%40) ve 676 mezuna (%60) ulaşılmıştır. Sürekli değişkenler yorumlanırken verilerin regresyon katsayıları üzerinden analiz edilmesi için lojistik regresyon analizi kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca kategorik değişkenler yorumlanırken Odds Ratio (OR) değerleri kullanılmış ve böylece referans kategoriler arasındaki farklar ortaya konmuştur. Araştırma sonuçlarına göre, misafir olunan ülkeye ekonomik olarak entegre olamayan ve iş ararken yabancı düşmanlığı gibi olumsuz durumlarla karşılaşan göçmenler, ülkelerine dönme eğilimindedir. Ülkeleriyle ilişkilerini güçlü tutan ülkelerindeki gelişmeleri takip etmeye çalışan göçmenlerin de geri dönüş eğilimi diğer göçmenlere göre daha yüksektir. Ayrıca kendi ülkelerinde sosyalleşme sürecini tamamlayan göçmenler ile anavatan dışında bu süreci tamamlayan göçmenler arasında uluslararası göç eğilimlerini etkileyen etkenler açısından farklılıklar bulunmaktadır.

Keywords

Göç, tersine göç, beşeri sermaye, sosyalizasyon, Türk Diasporası

Intention of Reverse Migration and Diaspora Networks: Factors Influencing Reverse Migration Tendencies of High-Skilled Turks in Germany

Abstract

The study aims at revealing the remigration trends of the skilled Turkish immigrants in Germany especially towards Turkey by examining international emigrational trends and the factors that cause these trends. In this context of study, a field of study was carried out between the period of 15/11/2018 and 30/04/2019, and 1,127 participants, 451 students (40%), and 676 graduates (60%) were reached across Germany under the fieldwork. The logistic regression analysis was used to analyze the data via regression coefficients when interpreting continuous variables. Additionally, Odds Ratio (OR) values were used while interpreting categorical variables and so the differences between reference categories were revealed. According to the results of the research, the immigrants who cannot economically integrate into the country of immigration and face negative situations such as xenophobia while looking for a job and tend to return to their countries. The return trend of immigrants who try to follow the developments in their countries, which keep their relations with their countries strong, is higher than the other immigrants. In addition, there are differences for the evaluation of sociopolitical conditions besides international migration tendencies of immigrants who complete socialization process in their own country and those who end this process in the immigrant country.

Keywords

Migration, Remigration, Human Capital, Socialization, Turkish Diaspora

References

• Alkan, M., N. (2011). Transmigranten auf dem Weg in die Heimat? Ankara: Paper, Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung.
• Alscher, S. & Kreienbrink, A. (2014). “Abwanderung von Türkeistämmigen. Wer verlässt Deutschland und warum?” Beiträge zu Migration und Integration, Band 6. Nürnberg: Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge.
• Aver, C. & Gümüş, B. (2017). “Transnationale Remigration nach Deutschland”. Deutsch-Türkische Beziehungen. Historische, sektorale und migrationsspezifische Aspekte. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang Verlag. 507-577.
• Aver, C. (2015). “Transnationale Migration zwischen Deutschland und der Neuer Türkei.” Die Neue Türkei. Eine grundlegende Einführung in die Innen- und Außenpolitik unter Recep Tayyip Erdoğan. Frankfurt am Main, Berlin, Bern, Bruxelles, New York, Oxford: Peter Lang Verlag GmbH. 393-420.
• Aydın, Y. (2013). »Transnational« statt »nicht integriert«: Abwanderung türkeistämmiger Hochqualifizierter aus Deutschland. Konstanz: UVK Verlagsgesellschaft.
• -----. (2016). The Germany-Turkey Migration Corridor: Refitting Policies for a Transnational Age. Migration Policy Institute, Washington, DC.
• Baban, F. (2006). “From Gastarbeiter to ‘Ausländische Mitbürger’: Postnational citizenship and in-between identities in Berlin”. Citizenship studies, 10(2), 185-201.
• Bilgili, Ö. & Siegel, M. (2017). “To Return Permanently or to Return Temporarily? Explaining Migrants’ Intentions”. Migration and Development, 6(1), 14-32.
• Boehnke, K., Hagan, J. & Hefler, G. (1998). “On the Development of Xenophobia in Germany: The Adolescent Years”. Journal of Social Issues, 54(3), 585-602.
• Byerlee, D. (1974). “Rural-urban Migration in Africa: Theory, Policy and Research Implications”. International Migration Review, 8(4), 543-566.
• Carling, J., P. & Silje V. (2014). “Return Migration Intentions in the Integration–transnationalism Matrix”. International Migration, 52(6), 13-30.
• Charman, A. & Piper, L. (2012). “Xenophobia, Criminality and Violent Entrepreneurship: Violence Against Somali Shopkeepers in Delft South, Cape Town, South Africa”. South African Review of Sociology, 43(3), 81-105.
• Constant, A. & Massey, S. D. (2002). “Return Migration by German Guestworkers: Neoclassical versus New Economic Theories”. International migration, 40(4), 5-38.
• De Haas, H. & Fokkema, T. (2010). “Intra‐Household Conflicts in Migration Decisionmaking: Return and Pendulum Migration in Morocco”. Population and Development Review, 36(3), 541-561.
• De Haas, H., Fokkema, T., & Fihri, M. F. (2015). “Return Migration as Failure or Success?” Journal of International Migration and Integration, 16(2), 415-429.
• Diehl, C. & Liebau, E. (2015). “Turning Back to Turkey or Turning the Back on Germany? Remigration Intentions and Behavior of Turkish Immigrants in Germany between 1984 and 2011”. Zeitschrift für Soziologie, 44(1), 22-41.
• Diehl, C. A., Veronica A. K. Y., Krause, K. (2013). “Not in My Kitchen? Ethnic Discrimination and Discrimination Intentions in Shared Housing among University Students in Germany.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 39(10), 1679-1697.
• Dustmann, C. (1996). “Return Migration: The European Experience”. Economic Policy, 11(22), 213-250.
• -----. (2003). “Return Migration, Wage Differentials, and the Optimal Migration Duration”. European Economic Review, 47(2), 353-369.
• Fokkema, T. (2011). “'Return' Migration Intentions among Second-Generation Turks in Europe: The Effect of Integration and Transnationalism in a Cross-national Perspective”. Journal of Mediterranean Studies, 20(2), 365-388.
• Geis, G. (1995). “Is Germany's Xenophobia Qualitatively Different from Everybody Else's?”. Crime, Law and Social Change, 24(1), 65-75.
• Gmelch, G. (1980). “Return Migration”. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9(1), 135-159.
• -----. (1992). Double Passage: The Lives of Caribbean Migrants Abroad and Back Home. University of Michigan Press.
• Grasmuck, S., Hinze, A. M. (2016). “Transnational Heritage Migrants in Istanbul: Second-generation Turk-American and Turk-German ‘Returnees’ in their Parents’ Homeland”. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(12), 1959-1976.
• Gümüş, B. (2013). “Transmigration zwischen Deutschland und Istanbul. Erwartungen, Erfolge und Ernüchterungen von Hochqualifizierten”. Transnationale Migration am Beispiel Deutschland und Türkei Wiesbaden: Springer Fachmedien. 323-337.
• Herzog, W. H., & Schlottmann, M. A. (1983). Migrant Information, Job Search and the Remigration Decision. Southern Economic Journal, 43-56.
• Jolly, K. S. & DiGiusto, M. G. (2014). “Xenophobia and Immigrant Contact: French Public Attitudes toward Immigration”. The Social Science Journal, 51(3), 464-473.
• Kaya, A. (2009). Islam, Migration and Integration: The Age of Securitization. Springer.
• King, M. K. & Newbold, K. B. (2008). “Return Immigration: The Chronic Migration of Canadian Immigrants, 1991, 1996 and 2001”. Population, Space and Place, 14(2), 85-100.
• Koopmans, R., Veit, S., & Yemane, R. (2018). Ethnische Hierarchien in der Bewerberauswahl: Ein Feldexperiment zu den Ursachen von Arbeitsmarktdiskriminierung. Discussion Paper SP VI 2018-104. Berlin: Wissenschaftszentrum Berlin.
• Krumpal, I. (2012). “Estimating the Prevalence of Xenophobia and anti-Semitism in Germany: A Comparison of Randomized Response and Direct Questioning”. Social Science Research, 41(6), 1387-1403.
• Kunuroglu, F., Yagmur, K., Van De Vijver, F. J., & Kroon, S. (2018). “Motives for Turkish return migration from Western Europe: Home, sense of belonging, discrimination and transnationalism”. Turkish Studies, 19(3), 422-450.
• Legge, S. J. (2003). Jews, Turks, and Other Strangers: Roots of Prejudice in Modern Germany. Univ of Wisconsin Press.
• Levitt, P., & Glick-Schiller, N. (2004). Conceptualizing Simultaneity: A Transnational Social Field Perspektive on Society. International Migration Review, 38 / 3, 1002-1939.
• Lu, Y., Zong, L., & Schissel, B. (2009). To stay or return: Migration intentions of students from People’s Republic of China in Saskatchewan, Canada. Journal of International Migration and Integration / Revue de l'integration et de la migration internationale, 10(3), 283-310.
• Makina, D. (2012). Determinants of return migration intentions: Evidence from Zimbabwean migrants living in South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 29(3), 365-378.
• Mandel, R. (1990). Shifting centres and emergent identities: Turkey and Germany in the lives of Turkish Gastarbeiter. Muslim Travellers: Pilgrimage, migration, and the religious imagination, 153-171.
• Mocan, N. (2013). Vengeance. Review of Economics and Statistics, 95(3), 969-982.
• Mocan, N., & Raschke, C. (2016). Economic well-being and anti-Semitic, xenophobic, and racist attitudes in Germany. European Journal of Law and Economics, 41(1), 1-63.
• Mueller, C. (2007). Integrating Turkish communities: a German dilemma. Population research and policy review, 25(5-6), 419-441.
• Nauck, B. (2001). Intercultural contact and intergenerational transmission in immigrant families. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 32(2), 159-173.
• Özyürek, E. (2014). Being German, becoming Muslim: Race, religion, and conversion in the new Europe (Vol. 56). Princeton University Press.
• Pries, L. (2003). Transnationalismus, Migration und Inkorporation. Herausforderungen an Raum und Sozialwissenschaften. Geographische revue, 2, 23-39.
• Rittersberger-Tiliҫ, H. (2013). Rückwanderungsdynamiken und transnationale familiäre Netzwerke: Erfahrungen von Remigrantinnen in der Türkei. Asian and African Studies, 22 / 1, 31-48.
• Sauer, M. & Halm, D. (2009). Erfolge und Defizite der Integration türkeistämmiger Einwanderer - Entwicklung der Lebenssituation 1999 bis 2008. Wiesbaden: Stiftung Zentrum für Türkeistudien.
• Sauer, M. (2009). Türkeistämmige Migranten in Nordrhein-Westfalen und in Deutschland: Lebenssituation und Integrationsstand. Essen: Stiftung Zentrum für Türkeistudien.
• -----. 2018. Identifikation und politische Partizipation türkeistämmiger Zugewanderter in Nordrhein-Westfalen und in Deutschland. Ergebnisse der erweiterten Mehrthemenbefragung 2017. Essen: VS Verlag.
• Schiller, N. G., Basch, L. & Blanc-Szanton, C. (1992). Transnationalism: A new analytic framework for understanding migration. Annals of the New York academy of sciences, 645(1), 1-24.
• Sener, M. Y. (2020). “Adaptation and identity shifts after migration and return migration: Turkish skilled returnees from Germany and the US”. Border Crossing, 10(1), 3-28.
• Sezer, K. & Dağlar, N. (2009). Die Identifikation der TASD mit Deutschland. Abwanderungsphänomen der TASD beschreiben und verstehen. Eine Online-Befragung mit 240 Teilnehmer*innen. Krefeld / Dortmund: Futurorg Institut.
• Sirkeci, İ. & Zeyneloğlu, S. (2014). Abwanderung aus Deutschland in die Turkei: Eine Trendwende im Migrationsgeschehen? in: Alscher, St. ve Kreienbrink, A. (eds.) Abwanderung von Türkeistämmigen: Wer verlässt Deutschland und warum? Nürnberg: Bundesamt für Migration und Flüchtlinge, S. 30-85.
• Skrobanek, J. (2009). Perceived discrimination, ethnic identity and the (re-) ethnicisation of youth with a Turkish ethnic background in Germany. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 35(4), 535-554.
• Statistik der Bundesagentur für Arbeit (2019): Berichte: Blickpunkt Arbeitsmarkt - Akademikerinnen und Akademiker, Nürnberg.
• Statistisches Bundesamt und DZHW-Berechnungen. Studierendenstatistik. Bildungsausländer, 10 wichtigste Herkunftsstaaten, angestrebte Abschlussarten, Anzahl und Steigerungsraten, WS 2002 / 03 - WS 2016 / 17, Wiesbaden.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. (2008). Mikrozensus 2007. Bevölkerung mit (türkischem) und ohne Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland. Fachserie 1, Reihe 2.2, Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit, Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund, Wiesbaden.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. (2017). Mikrozensus 2016: Bevölkerung mit (türkischem) und ohne Migrationshintergrund in Deutschland. Fachserie 1, Reihe 2.2. Bevölkerung und Erwerbstätigkeit Bevölkerung mit Migrationshintergrund. Wiesbaden.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. (2018). Sonderauswertung auf Anfrage: Wanderungen, Bevölkerungsfortschr- eibung, Wiesbaden.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. Fachserie 11, Reihe 4.1 der Jahre 2007, 2012, 2016.
• Statistisches Bundesamt. Sonderauswertung Mikrozensus für die Jahre 2007, 2012, 2016 und 2017: Bevölkerung in Privathaushalten nach Migrationsstatus und ausgewählten Merkmalen, Wiesbaden.
• Tezcan, T. (2019a). Return home? Determinants of return migration intention amongst Turkish immigrants in Germany. Geoforum, 98, 189-201.
• -----. (2019b). What initiates, what postpones return migration intention? The case of Turkish immigrants residing in Germany. Population, Space and Place, 25(3), e2175.
• Todaro, P. M. (1969). A model of labor migration and urban unemployment in less developed countries. The American economic review, 59(1), 138-148.
• Virtanen, K. (1979). Settlement or return: Finnish emigrants (1860-1930) in the international overseas return migration movement. Suomen historiallinen seura.
• Waldorf, B. (1995). Determinants of international return migration intentions. The Professional Geographer, 47(2), 125-136.
• Wolff, F.-C. (2015). Do the return intentions of French migrants affect their transfer behaviour? The Journal of Development Studies, 51(10), 1358-1373.