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An Analysis of the Gender Pay Gap in Turkey from a Sectoral Perspective Using Unconditional Quantile Regression: Sticky Floors and Glass Ceilings

Year 2024, Volume: 39 Issue: 4, 872 - 892
https://doi.org/10.24988/ije.1509747

Abstract

A sticky floor is defined as the widening of the gender pay gap at the lower end of the pay distribution, while a glass ceiling is defined as the widening of the gender pay gap at the upper end of the pay distribution. While gender pay inequality exists globally, the extent of this inequality varies considerably between countries. Wage discrimination has a detrimental impact on both women's welfare and macroeconomic welfare in the short and long term. This is because it results in low wages, social insecurity, and low pensions. Consequently, it is of paramount importance to ascertain the existence and causes of gender pay inequality to inform the formulation of policies designed to eliminate this inequality. The objective of this study is to investigate the existence and causes of the glass ceiling and sticky floor effect in the private sector in Turkey, specifically in the mining, manufacturing, construction, agriculture, and service sectors. To achieve this objective, the Turkish Statistical Institute Household Labour Force Survey data are employed in the RIF unconditional quantile regression of the Mincerian wage equation for the year 2021. RIF unconditional quantile regression is a commonly employed method for examining the effects of changes in observed characteristics on the output of the distribution in areas such as labor economics, income and inequality, health economics, and public policy. The findings from the entire sample indicate that the sticky floor and glass ceiling have an impact on the private sector in Turkey. Conversely, the mining, manufacturing, and construction sectors do not exhibit the presence of a sticky floor or glass ceiling effect. However, both a sticky floor and glass ceiling effect are observed in the agriculture and service sectors.sectors.

References

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  • Agrawal, T. (2013). Are there glass-ceiling and sticky-flooreffects in India? An empirical examination. Oxford Development Studies, 41(3), 322-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2013.804499
  • Albrecht, J., Björklund, A. ve Vroman, S. (2003). Is there a glass ceiling in Sweden?. Journal of Labor Economics, 21(1), 145-177.
  • Anh T. (2018). Investigating the gender wage gap in Vietnam by quantile regression: Sticky floor or glass ceiling. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 25(1), 4–23.
  • Aranha R. H., Aquinas P. G. ve Saldanha A. T. (2019). Effect of glass ceiling on the performance of women employees in service sector. International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 4(1), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2548822
  • Arulampalam, W., Booth, A.L. ve Bryan, M.L. (2007). Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. ILR Review, 60(2), 163-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390706000201
  • Barreto, U. & Abarca, Y., Pagan, J., Ballón, W., Jara, O. ve Astete, R. (2021). Women and glass ceilings in the construction industry: A review. South Florida Journal of Development, 2, 4775-4790. https://doi.org/10.46932/sfjdv2n3-072
  • Baruah B., Biskupski ve Mujanovic S. (2021). Navigating sticky floors and glass ceilings: Barriers and opportunities for women’s employment in natural resources industries in Canada. A Unıted Natıons Sustaınable Development Journal,45(2) https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12216
  • Bui, M.-T. T. ve Permpoonwiwat, C. K. (2015). Gender wage ınequality in Thailand. A sectoral perspective. Journal of Behavioral Science, 10(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.14456/ijbs.2015.40
  • Carrillo, P., Gandelman, N. ve Robano, N. (2014). Sticky floors and glass ceilings in Latin America. Journal of Economic Inequality, 12, 339–361. DOI: 10.1007/s10888-013-9258-3
  • Chun-Hoon, W. ve Shuler, L. (2022,15 Şubat). Want equal pay? Get a Union.U.S. Department Of Labor Blog. https://blog.dol.gov/2022/02/15/want-equal-pay-get-a-union.
  • DİSK (2022,16 Eylül). 18 Eylül Eşit Değerde İşe Eşit Ücret Günü. DİSK/Genel- İş. https://www.genel-is.org.tr/18-eylul-esit-degerde-ise-esit-ucret-gunu,2,47512.
  • Duman, A. (2019). Wage penalty for temporary workers in Turkey: Evidence from quantile regressions. The Developing Economies, 57(4), 283-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/deve.12206
  • Duman, A. (2020). Wage losses and ınequality in developing countries: Labor market and distributional consequences of covid-19 in Turkey. Unpublished Paper. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3645468
  • EMAR (2023). Kadın Emeği Raporu. DİSK/GENEL-İŞ, Emek Araştırma Dairesi. https://www.cloudsdomain.com/uploads/dosya/47833.pdf
  • Fang, Z ve Sakellariou, C. (2015). Glass ceilings versus sticky floors:Evidence from Southeast Asia and an ınternational update. Asian Economic Journal, 29(3), 215-242. https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12056
  • FAO (2016). Tarımsal ve kırsal geçimin ulusal cinsiyet profili türkiye ülke toplumsal cinsiyet değerlendirme serisi. Birleşmiş Milletler Gıda ve Tarım Örgütü, Ankara. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a7487b48-3b4e-479b-9e0e-f8d35b67ccd9/content
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  • Firpo, S., Fortin, N.M. ve Lemieux,T. (2009). Unconditional quantile regressions. Econometrica, 77(3), 953-973. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6822
  • Gardeazabal, J., Ugidos, A. (2005). Gender wage discrimination at quantiles. Journal of Population Economics, 18, 165–179. DOI 10.1007/s00148-003-0172-z
  • Gemicioğlu, S. ve Şahin, H. (2022). Türkiye’de geçici ve kalıcı işlerde çalışanlar arasındaki ücret farklılıkları. Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 36(1), 115-124.
  • Gould, E., Schieder, J., Geier K. (2016). What is the gender pay gap and is it real? The complete guide to how women are paid less than men and why it can’t be explained away. Economic Policy Institute, https://www.epi.org/publication/what-is-the-gender-pay-gap-and-is-it-real/.
  • Görmüş, A. (2019). Türkiye’de tarımsal istihdamın cinsiyete dayalı yapısı ve sosyal politika önerileri. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 14(3), 563-578.
  • Halaçlı, B. ve Karaalp Orhan, H. S. (2022). Türkiye’de cinsiyete dayalı ücret eşitsizliği: işveren yönlü bir analiz. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, (61), 65-90. DOI: 10.18070/erciyesiibd.973090.
  • ILO (2020). Measuring the gender wage gap Turkey case. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---europe/---ro-geneva/---ilo-ankara/documents/publication/wcms_756660.pdf
  • ILO (2024). Statistics on women. https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/women/
  • Ismail, R. ve Jajri, I. (2012). Gender wage differentials and discrimination in Malaysian labour market. World Applied Sciences Journal, 19 (5), 719-728. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2012.19.05.1114
  • Ismail, R., Wye, C. K., Palel, N. S. M. (2017). Analysis of glass ceiling and sticky floor effects for gender wage gap in Malaysian labour market. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 51(2), 131-142.
  • Kim, M., Park, K. (2023). Glass ceiling or sticky floor? Evidence from a distributional approach of the gender wage gap among phd holders in South Korea. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 37(1), 3-19. doi: 10.1111/apel.12379
  • Kireyeva, A. A., Satybaldin, A. A. (2019). Analysis of gender pay gap in different sectors of the economy in Kazakhstan. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business, 6(2), 231-238.
  • Larraz, B., Pavia, J. M. ve Vila, L. E. (2019). Beyond the gender pay gap. Convergencia Revista de Ciencias Sociales, (81), 1-34. https://doi.org/ 10.29101/crcs.v26i81.11579
  • Li M., Zhang F. (2023). The wage structure and gap between public and private sectors: an empirical study in urban China. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 36(2), 2939-2959. DOI: 10.1080/1331677X.2022.2106276
  • Mevzuat Bilgi Sistemi (2014). Kurumsal Yönetim Tebliği. https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/File/GeneratePdf?mevzuatNo=19225&mevzuatTur=Teblig&mevzuatTertip=5
  • Misra, J. ve Close, M.M. (2014). The gender wage gap in the United States and cross nationally, sociology compass, 8(11), 1281-1295. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12213
  • Mona S., Mahdi, M.,Ghada B. (2022). Sticky floors and glass ceilings: Gender wage gap in Egypt. Feminist Economics, 28(4), 137-165, DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2078499
  • Moncton, N.B. (1996). The pay gap causes, consequences and actions. New Brunswick Advisory Council on the Status of Women, Working Paper. https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/eco-bce/WEB-EDF/pdf/en/ThePayGap.pdf
  • Oaxaca, R. (1973). Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets. International Economic Review, 14(3), 693–709. https://doi.org/10.2307/2525981
  • OECD (2020). Can collective bargaining help close the gender wage gap for women in non-standard jobs? OECD,Policy Brief on Collective Bargaining & Gender. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/can-collective-bargaining-help-close-the-gender-wage-gap-for-women-in-non-standard-jobs_1a2e3f6e-en.html
  • OECD (2022). Same skills, different pay tackling gender ınequalities at firm level. OECD Publication. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/same-skills-different-pay_a4d18506-en.html
  • OECD (2023). Gender wage gap (indicator). doi: 10.1787/7cee77aa-en.
  • Onuk, P. (2017). Ücret eşitsizliği ve ücretin sosyoekonomik belirleyenleri: İstanbul örneği. Çalışma ve Toplum, 53(2), 703 – 719.
  • Peker, A. E. ve Saltık, İ. (2020). Türkiye’de tarım sektöründe kadın erkek ücret adaletsizliği: Trb1 bölgesi örneği. Fırat Üniversitesi Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 4 (1), 129-148.
  • Rahmah, I., Zulridah, M. N. (2005). Gender wage differentials in the malaysian manufacturing sector. International Journal of Economics and Management, 13(2), 119-137. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijema.v13i2.110
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Türkiye’de Cinsiyetler Arası Ücret Açığının Sektörel Perspektiften Koşulsuz Kantil Regresyonla İncelenmesi: Yapışkan Zemin ve Cam Tavan

Year 2024, Volume: 39 Issue: 4, 872 - 892
https://doi.org/10.24988/ije.1509747

Abstract

Yapışkan zemin, cinsiyetler arası ücret farkının ücret dağılımının alt kısmında, cam tavan ise ücret dağılımının en üstünde genişlemesi olarak tanımlanır. Tüm dünyada cinsiyete dayalı ücret eşitsizliği görülmekle beraber ülkeden ülkeye eşitsizliğin şiddeti değişmektedir. Ücret ayrımcılığı, düşük ücret, sosyal güvencesizlik ve düşük emeklilik maaşları gibi sonuçlar doğurduğundan kısa ve uzun vadede gerek kadınların refahını gerekse makro ekonomik refahı olumsuz etkiler. Bu nedenle cinsiyetler arası ücret eşitsizliğinin varlığının ve nedenlerinin tespit edilmesi, eşitsizliği ortadan kaldırmaya yönelik uygulanacak politikalara rehberlik etmesi açısından oldukça önemlidir. Bu amaçla çalışmada, Türkiye'de maden, imalat, inşaat, tarım ve hizmet sektörlerinde özel kesim boyutunda cam tavan ve yapışkan zemin etkisi araştırılmıştır. Bunun için Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu Hanehalkı İşgücü Anketi verileri, 2021 dönemi Mincerian ücret denkleminin RIF koşulsuz kantil regresyonunda kullanılmıştır. RIF koşulsuz kantil regresyon, çalışma ekonomisi, gelir ve eşitsizlik, sağlık ekonomisi ve kamu politikası gibi alanlarda gözlemlenen özelliklerdeki değişimlerin dağılımın çıktı üzerindeki etkilerini incelemek için kullanılan yaygın bir yöntemdir. Örneklemin tamamından elde edilen sonuçlar Türkiye’de özel sektörde yapışkan zemin ve cam tavanın etkisinin olduğu yönündedir. Buna karşın maden, imalat ve inşaat sektöründe yapışkan zemin ve cam tavan etkisi yokken, tarım ve hizmetler sektöründe hem yapışkan zemin hem de cam tavan etkisi mevcuttur.

References

  • Acar Balaylar, N., Emeç, H. ve Üçdoğruk Birecikli, Ş. (2021). Türkiye’de imalat ve hizmet sektörlerindeki ücret farklılıklarının dilim regresyonla analizi, Çalışma ve Toplum, 2021(1), 45-74.
  • Agrawal, T. (2013). Are there glass-ceiling and sticky-flooreffects in India? An empirical examination. Oxford Development Studies, 41(3), 322-342. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13600818.2013.804499
  • Albrecht, J., Björklund, A. ve Vroman, S. (2003). Is there a glass ceiling in Sweden?. Journal of Labor Economics, 21(1), 145-177.
  • Anh T. (2018). Investigating the gender wage gap in Vietnam by quantile regression: Sticky floor or glass ceiling. Journal of Asian Business and Economic Studies, 25(1), 4–23.
  • Aranha R. H., Aquinas P. G. ve Saldanha A. T. (2019). Effect of glass ceiling on the performance of women employees in service sector. International Journal of Multidisciplinary, 4(1), 491–497. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.2548822
  • Arulampalam, W., Booth, A.L. ve Bryan, M.L. (2007). Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. ILR Review, 60(2), 163-186. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979390706000201
  • Barreto, U. & Abarca, Y., Pagan, J., Ballón, W., Jara, O. ve Astete, R. (2021). Women and glass ceilings in the construction industry: A review. South Florida Journal of Development, 2, 4775-4790. https://doi.org/10.46932/sfjdv2n3-072
  • Baruah B., Biskupski ve Mujanovic S. (2021). Navigating sticky floors and glass ceilings: Barriers and opportunities for women’s employment in natural resources industries in Canada. A Unıted Natıons Sustaınable Development Journal,45(2) https://doi.org/10.1111/1477-8947.12216
  • Bui, M.-T. T. ve Permpoonwiwat, C. K. (2015). Gender wage ınequality in Thailand. A sectoral perspective. Journal of Behavioral Science, 10(2), 19–36. https://doi.org/10.14456/ijbs.2015.40
  • Carrillo, P., Gandelman, N. ve Robano, N. (2014). Sticky floors and glass ceilings in Latin America. Journal of Economic Inequality, 12, 339–361. DOI: 10.1007/s10888-013-9258-3
  • Chun-Hoon, W. ve Shuler, L. (2022,15 Şubat). Want equal pay? Get a Union.U.S. Department Of Labor Blog. https://blog.dol.gov/2022/02/15/want-equal-pay-get-a-union.
  • DİSK (2022,16 Eylül). 18 Eylül Eşit Değerde İşe Eşit Ücret Günü. DİSK/Genel- İş. https://www.genel-is.org.tr/18-eylul-esit-degerde-ise-esit-ucret-gunu,2,47512.
  • Duman, A. (2019). Wage penalty for temporary workers in Turkey: Evidence from quantile regressions. The Developing Economies, 57(4), 283-310. https://doi.org/10.1111/deve.12206
  • Duman, A. (2020). Wage losses and ınequality in developing countries: Labor market and distributional consequences of covid-19 in Turkey. Unpublished Paper. https://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.3645468
  • EMAR (2023). Kadın Emeği Raporu. DİSK/GENEL-İŞ, Emek Araştırma Dairesi. https://www.cloudsdomain.com/uploads/dosya/47833.pdf
  • Fang, Z ve Sakellariou, C. (2015). Glass ceilings versus sticky floors:Evidence from Southeast Asia and an ınternational update. Asian Economic Journal, 29(3), 215-242. https://doi.org/10.1111/asej.12056
  • FAO (2016). Tarımsal ve kırsal geçimin ulusal cinsiyet profili türkiye ülke toplumsal cinsiyet değerlendirme serisi. Birleşmiş Milletler Gıda ve Tarım Örgütü, Ankara. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a7487b48-3b4e-479b-9e0e-f8d35b67ccd9/content
  • Faruk, A. (2021). Analysing the glass ceiling and sticky floor effects in Bangladesh: evidence, extent and elements. SN Business Economics, 1(9), 110. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43546-021-00123-z
  • Firpo, S., Fortin, N.M. ve Lemieux,T. (2009). Unconditional quantile regressions. Econometrica, 77(3), 953-973. https://doi.org/10.3982/ECTA6822
  • Gardeazabal, J., Ugidos, A. (2005). Gender wage discrimination at quantiles. Journal of Population Economics, 18, 165–179. DOI 10.1007/s00148-003-0172-z
  • Gemicioğlu, S. ve Şahin, H. (2022). Türkiye’de geçici ve kalıcı işlerde çalışanlar arasındaki ücret farklılıkları. Atatürk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 36(1), 115-124.
  • Gould, E., Schieder, J., Geier K. (2016). What is the gender pay gap and is it real? The complete guide to how women are paid less than men and why it can’t be explained away. Economic Policy Institute, https://www.epi.org/publication/what-is-the-gender-pay-gap-and-is-it-real/.
  • Görmüş, A. (2019). Türkiye’de tarımsal istihdamın cinsiyete dayalı yapısı ve sosyal politika önerileri. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi, 14(3), 563-578.
  • Halaçlı, B. ve Karaalp Orhan, H. S. (2022). Türkiye’de cinsiyete dayalı ücret eşitsizliği: işveren yönlü bir analiz. Erciyes Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, (61), 65-90. DOI: 10.18070/erciyesiibd.973090.
  • ILO (2020). Measuring the gender wage gap Turkey case. www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---europe/---ro-geneva/---ilo-ankara/documents/publication/wcms_756660.pdf
  • ILO (2024). Statistics on women. https://ilostat.ilo.org/topics/women/
  • Ismail, R. ve Jajri, I. (2012). Gender wage differentials and discrimination in Malaysian labour market. World Applied Sciences Journal, 19 (5), 719-728. DOI: 10.5829/idosi.wasj.2012.19.05.1114
  • Ismail, R., Wye, C. K., Palel, N. S. M. (2017). Analysis of glass ceiling and sticky floor effects for gender wage gap in Malaysian labour market. Jurnal Ekonomi Malaysia, 51(2), 131-142.
  • Kim, M., Park, K. (2023). Glass ceiling or sticky floor? Evidence from a distributional approach of the gender wage gap among phd holders in South Korea. Asian-Pacific Economic Literature, 37(1), 3-19. doi: 10.1111/apel.12379
  • Kireyeva, A. A., Satybaldin, A. A. (2019). Analysis of gender pay gap in different sectors of the economy in Kazakhstan. The Journal of Asian Finance, Economics, and Business, 6(2), 231-238.
  • Larraz, B., Pavia, J. M. ve Vila, L. E. (2019). Beyond the gender pay gap. Convergencia Revista de Ciencias Sociales, (81), 1-34. https://doi.org/ 10.29101/crcs.v26i81.11579
  • Li M., Zhang F. (2023). The wage structure and gap between public and private sectors: an empirical study in urban China. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 36(2), 2939-2959. DOI: 10.1080/1331677X.2022.2106276
  • Mevzuat Bilgi Sistemi (2014). Kurumsal Yönetim Tebliği. https://www.mevzuat.gov.tr/File/GeneratePdf?mevzuatNo=19225&mevzuatTur=Teblig&mevzuatTertip=5
  • Misra, J. ve Close, M.M. (2014). The gender wage gap in the United States and cross nationally, sociology compass, 8(11), 1281-1295. https://doi.org/10.1111/soc4.12213
  • Mona S., Mahdi, M.,Ghada B. (2022). Sticky floors and glass ceilings: Gender wage gap in Egypt. Feminist Economics, 28(4), 137-165, DOI: 10.1080/13545701.2022.2078499
  • Moncton, N.B. (1996). The pay gap causes, consequences and actions. New Brunswick Advisory Council on the Status of Women, Working Paper. https://www2.gnb.ca/content/dam/gnb/Departments/eco-bce/WEB-EDF/pdf/en/ThePayGap.pdf
  • Oaxaca, R. (1973). Male-female wage differentials in urban labor markets. International Economic Review, 14(3), 693–709. https://doi.org/10.2307/2525981
  • OECD (2020). Can collective bargaining help close the gender wage gap for women in non-standard jobs? OECD,Policy Brief on Collective Bargaining & Gender. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/can-collective-bargaining-help-close-the-gender-wage-gap-for-women-in-non-standard-jobs_1a2e3f6e-en.html
  • OECD (2022). Same skills, different pay tackling gender ınequalities at firm level. OECD Publication. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/same-skills-different-pay_a4d18506-en.html
  • OECD (2023). Gender wage gap (indicator). doi: 10.1787/7cee77aa-en.
  • Onuk, P. (2017). Ücret eşitsizliği ve ücretin sosyoekonomik belirleyenleri: İstanbul örneği. Çalışma ve Toplum, 53(2), 703 – 719.
  • Peker, A. E. ve Saltık, İ. (2020). Türkiye’de tarım sektöründe kadın erkek ücret adaletsizliği: Trb1 bölgesi örneği. Fırat Üniversitesi Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Dergisi, 4 (1), 129-148.
  • Rahmah, I., Zulridah, M. N. (2005). Gender wage differentials in the malaysian manufacturing sector. International Journal of Economics and Management, 13(2), 119-137. https://doi.org/10.31436/ijema.v13i2.110
  • Roshchin, S., Yemelina, N. (2020). Gender differentiation ın wages ın Kazakhstan. Higher School of Economics Research. Paper No. WP BRP, 240.
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There are 55 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language Turkish
Subjects Econometrics (Other), Development Economics - Macro
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Nilgün Acar Balaylar 0000-0002-7024-5279

Şenay Üçdoğruk 0000-0002-5842-4012

Hamdi Emeç 0000-0001-6848-5794

Early Pub Date November 11, 2024
Publication Date
Submission Date July 3, 2024
Acceptance Date September 17, 2024
Published in Issue Year 2024 Volume: 39 Issue: 4

Cite

APA Acar Balaylar, N., Üçdoğruk, Ş., & Emeç, H. (2024). Türkiye’de Cinsiyetler Arası Ücret Açığının Sektörel Perspektiften Koşulsuz Kantil Regresyonla İncelenmesi: Yapışkan Zemin ve Cam Tavan. İzmir İktisat Dergisi, 39(4), 872-892. https://doi.org/10.24988/ije.1509747

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