İŞYERLERİNDE CİNSİYET ÖNYARGILARI: CİNSİYET ÖNYARGILARINA YOL AÇAN FAKTÖRLER ÜZERİNE BİR KAPSAM İNCELEMESİ

Year 2023, Volume: 19 Issue: 1, 106 - 122, 24.03.2023

Emine Karakaplan Özer

https://doi.org/10.17130/ijmeb.1192218

Abstract

İşyerlerinde cinsiyet, uzun süredir üzerinde çalışılan ve tartışılan karmaşık dinamikleri olan bir konudur. Kadınların işyerlerinde, özellikle üst düzey pozisyonlarda yeterince temsil edilmemesi dikkat çeken bir problemdir. Bu yetersiz temsilin altında yatan nedenleri belirlemek, engelleri aşmak için çok önemlidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, işyerlerinde cinsiyet önyargılarına neden olan faktörlerin ortaya konulmasıdır. Bu amaçtan yola çıkarak Arksey ve O'Malley'in (2005) kapsam inceleme metodolojisi kullanılmıştır. Bu çalışmada 2010-2022 yılları arasında Web of Science ve Scopus veri tabanlarında indekslenen makaleler incelenmiştir. En uygun makaleler PRISMA yönergeleri ile belirlenip, çalışmaya dahil edilmiştir. Çalışmanın sonuçları, iş yerlerinde ağırlıklı olarak kadınların önyargılara maruz kaldığını ve bu önyargılara neden olan faktörlerin yedi başlık altında gruplandırılabileceğini göstermektedir. Bunlar annelik/bakım, iş/aile dengesi, beceri/yeterlilik, ücret, hassasiyet/duygusallık, kültür, fiziksel görünüm ve giyim tarzıdır.

Keywords

Cinsiyet, Önyargı, İşyerleri, Kadınlar

GENDER BIAS IN WORKPLACES: A SCOPING REVIEW OF THE FACTORS LEADING THE GENDER BIAS

Abstract

At workplaces gender is an issue with complex dynamics that has long been studied and discussed. The underrepresentation of women at workplaces, especially in senior positions, is a noteworthy problem. Identifying the underlying causes of this underrepresentation is essential to break the barriers. The aim of this study is to uncover the factors leading the main gender biases in workplaces. For this aim, Conceptual Framework of Arksey & O'Malley (2005) on scoping review methodology was used. In this study, papers indexed in Web of Science and Scopus databases between 2010 and 2022 were examined. Eligible papers were identified and selected with PRISMA guidelines. The results of the study show that in workplaces predominantly women are exposed to biases and factors leading these biases can be grouped under seven headings. These are motherhood/caring, work/family balance, skill/ competence, wage, sensitiveness/emotionality, culture, and physical appearance/ clothing.

Keywords

Gender, Bias, Workplaces, Women

References

• Acker, J. (1990). Hierarchies, jobs, bodies: A theory of gendered organizations. Gender& Society, 4(2), 139-158.
• Adichie, C. N. (2017). Dear Ijeawele: A feminist manifesto in fifteen suggestions. London: 4th Estate.
• Ali, F. & Kramar, R. (2015). An exploratory study of sexual harassment in Pakistani organizations. Asia Pacific Journal Of Management, 32(1), 229-249.
• Arksey, H., & O'Malley , L. (2005). "Scoping Studies: towards a Methodological Framework". International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 8(1), 19-32
• Azmat, G. (2014). Gender and the labor market: What have we learned from field and lab experiments? Labour Economics, 30, 32-40. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2014.06.005
• Azmat, G. & Petrongolo, B. (2014). Gender and the labor market: What have we learned from field and lab experiments? Centre for Economic Performance.
• BarbaraPetrongolo & Maddalena, R. (2020). Gender gaps and the structure of local labor markets. Labour Economics, 64. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2020.101819
• Bear, J. B. & Glick, P. (2016). Breadwinner bonus and caregiver penalty in workplace rewards for men and women. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 8(7).
• Brüggmann, D. & Groneberg, D. A. (2017). An index to characterize female career promotion in academic medicine. Journal of Occupational Medicine and Toxicology, 12(18).
• Bryce, T., Far, H. & Gardner, A. (2019). Barriers to career advancement for female engineers in Australia’s civil construction industry and recommended solutions. Australian Journal of Civil Engineering, 1-10. doi: https://doi.org/10.1080/14488353.2019.1578055
• Castilla, E. J. & Benard, S. (2010). The paradox of meritocracy in organizations. Administrative Science Quarterly, 55, 543–576.
• Catatlyst. (2022, March 01). Women in Management (Quick Take). Workplaces that work for Women: https://www.catalyst.org/research/women-in-management
• Chang, E. H., Milkman, K. L., Gromet, D. M., Rebele, R. W., Massey, C., Duckworth, A. L. & Grant, A. M. (2019). The mixed effects of online diversity training. PNAS, 116(16), 7778–7783.
• Cheung, H. K., Anderson, A. J., King, E. B., Mahabir, B., Warner, K. & Jones, K. P. (2022). Beyond the baby bump: Subtle discrimination against working mothers in the hiring process. Journal of Business and Psychology. doi:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-022-09790-7
• Clark, A. E. (1997). Job satisfaction and gender: why are women so happy at work? Labour Economics, 4(4), 341-372.
• Craig, L. & Churchill, B. (2021). Working and caring at home: Gender differences in the effects of Covid-19 on paid and unpaid labor in Australia. Feminist Economics, 27(1-2), 310-326.
• Cyr, E. N., Bergsieker, H. B., Dennehy, T. C. & Schmader, T. (2021). Mapping social exclusion in STEM to men’s implicit bias and women’s career costs. PNAS, 118(40).
• D’Agostino, M., Levine, H. & Sabharwal, M. (2020). Gender in negotiation: Preparing public administrators for the 21st century workplace. Journal of Publıc Affaırs Educatıon, 26(1), 96–116.
• Denend, L., Mccutcheon, S., Regan, M., Saınz, M., Yock, P. & Azagury, D. (2020). Analysis of gender perceptions in health technology: A call to action. Annals of Biomedical Engineering, 48(5), 1573–1586.
• Dengate, J., Hoffart, R., Peter, T., Farenhorst, A. & Franz-Odendaal, T. (2021). The effect of women academic leaders on canadian natural sciences and engineering professors. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 51(2).
• Eaton, A. A., Saunders, J. F. & Jacobson, R. K. (2020). How gender and race stereotypes ımpact the advancement of scholars in stem: professors’ biased evaluations of physics and biology post-doctoral candidates. Sex Roles, 82(3-4), 127-141.
• Fan, Y., Shepherd, L. J., Slavich, E., Waters, D., Stone, M., Abel, R. & Johnston, E. L. (2019). Gender and cultural bias in student evaluations: Why representation matters. PLoS ONE, 14(2).
• Fuller, S. & Hirsh, C. E. (2019). “Family-friendly” jobs and motherhood pay penalties: The ımpact of flexible work arrangements across the educational spectrum. Work and Occupations, 46(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888418771116
• Garcı´a-Gonza´lez, J., Force´n, P. & Jimenez-Sanchez, M. (2019). Men and women differ in their perception of gender bias in research institutions. PLoS ONE, 14(12). doi:https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0225763
• Gonalons-Pons, P. & Gang, M. (2021). Marriage and Masculinity: Male-Breadwinner Culture, Unemployment, and Separation Risk in 29 Countries. American Sociological Review, 86(3), s. 465–502. doi:https://doi.org/10.1177/00031224211012442
• Gonçalves, K. (2019). “What are you doing here, I thought you had a kid now?” The stigmatization of working mothers in academia – a critical self-reflective essay on gender, motherhood and the neoliberal academy. Gender and Language, 13(4).
• Hernández-Bark, A., Escartín, J. & Van Dick, R. (2014). Gender and leadership in Spain: A systematic review of some key aspects. Sex Roles, 70(11-12), 522-537.
• Howlett, N., Pine, K. J., Cahill, N., Orakçıoğlu, İ. & Ben (C), F. (2015). Unbuttoned: The Interaction between provocativeness of female work attire and occupational status. Sex Roles, 72, 105–116.
• Huang, J., Krivkovich, , A., Starikova, I., Yee, L. & Zanoschi, D. (2019, October). Women in the workplace. McKinsey& Company.
• Huddy, L. & Terkildsen, N. (1993). Gender stereotypes and the perception of male and female candidates. American Journal of Political Science, 37(1), 119-147.
• Hutchison, K. (2020). Four types of gender bias affecting women surgeons and their cumulative impact. J Med Ethics, 46, s. 236–241. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/
• Kanze, D., Conley, M. A., Okimoto, T. G., Phillips, D. J. & Merluzzi, J. (2020). Evidence that investors penalize female founders forlack of industry fit. Scıence Advances.
• Kelan, E. K. & Wratil, P. (2021). CEOs as agents of change and continuity. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 40(5), s. 493-509. doi:DOI 10.1108/EDI-06-2020-0171
• Klein, G. & Shtudiner, Z. (2021). Judging severity of unethical workplace behavior: Attractiveness and gender as status characteristics. Business Research Quarterly, 24(1), 19–33.
• Langlois, J. H., Kalakanis, L., Rubenstein, A. J., Larson, A. & Hallam, M. (2000). Maxims or myths of beauty? A meta-analytic and theoretic review. Psychological Bulletin, s. 390–423. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.126.3.390.
• Leon, C. (2022). Insights for Indigenous employment into a case study of unconscious bias in the Australian Public Service. Aust J Soc Issues, 1-22.
• Luksyte, A., Unsworth, K. & Avery, D. (2018). Innovative work behavior and sex-based stereotypes: examining sex differences in perceptions and evaluations of ınnovative work behavior. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 39(3), 292-305.
• Matanle, P., Ishiguro, K. & McCann, L. (2014). Popular culture and workplace gendering among varieties of capitalism: working women and their representation in japanese manga. Gender, Work and Organization, 21(5), 472-489.
• Moscatelli, S., Menegatti, M., Ellemers, N., Mariani, M. G. & Rubini, M. (2020). Men should be competent, women should have it all: multiple criteria in the evaluation of female job candidates. Sex Roles, 83, 269–288.
• Nash, M., Nielsen , H. F., Shaw, J. & King, M. (2019). Antarctica just has this hero factor”: Gendered barriers to Australian Antarctic research and remote fieldwork. PLoSONE, 14(1).
• Neumark, D., Bank, R. J. & Nort, K. D. (1996). Sex discrimination in restaurant hiring: an audit study. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(3), 915-941.
• Norberg, C. & Johansson, M. (2021). “Women and “ıdeal” women”: the representation of women in the construction ındustry. Gender Issues, 38, 1-24.
• Novo-Corti, I., Calvo, N. & Varela-Candamio, L. (2018). Is my professional future biased for gender perceptions? A study for the Spanish case with public policy proposals on education. Cuadernos de Gestión, 18(2), 59-94.
• Pace, F. & Sciotto, G. (2022). Gender differences in the relationship between work–life balance: career opportunities and general health perception. Sustainability, 14(357), s. 1-10. doi: https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010357
• Pande., R. & Ford, D. (2011). Gender quotas and female leadership: a review background paper for the world development report on gender. World Development Report 2012 Gender Equalıty and Development.
• Patterson, S. E., Damaske, S. & Sheroff, C. (2017). Gender and the mba: differences in career trajectories, ınstitutional support, and outcomes. Gend Soc, 31(3), 310–332.
• Pereira, M. d. (2021). Researching gender inequalities in academic labor during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Avoiding common problems and asking different questions. Gender Work & Organization, 28(S2), 498-509.
• Perugini, C. & Vladisavljević, M. (2019). Gender inequality and the gender job satisfaction paradox in Europe. Labour Economics, 60, 129-147.
• Proctor, B. D., Semega, J. L. & Kollar, M. A. (2016). U.S. Census bureau, current population reports. Income and poverty in the United States: 2015. Washington, DC:: U.S. Government Printing Office.
• Schachter, H. L. (2017). Women in public administration: Giving gender a place in education for leadership. Administration & Society, 49(1), 143–158.
• Vaes, J., Paladino, P. & Puvia, E. (2011). European Journal of Social Psychology, 774–785. doi:10.1002/ejsp.824
• Vallejo-Torres, L., Morris, S. & Lopez-Valcarcel, B. G. (2018). Obesity and perceived work discrimination in Spain. Applied Economics, 50(36), 3870-3884.
• Webster, A., Khorana, S. & Pastore, F. (2022). The effects of COVID-19 on employment, labor markets, and gender equality in Central America. IZA Journal of Development and Migration, 13(1). doi:https://doi.org/10.2478/izajodm-2022-0001
• Westring, A. F., Speck, R. M., Sammel, M. D., Scott, P., Tuton, L. W., Grisso, J. A. & Abbuhl, S. (2012). A culture conducive to women’s academic success: development of a measure. Academic Medicine, 87(11).
• Williams, J. & Dewmpsey, R. (2014). What works for women at work. New York University Press.
• Wookey, M. L., Graves, N. A., & Butler, J. C. (2009). Effects of a sexy appearance on perceived competence of women. The Journal of Social Psychology, s. 116–118. doi:10.3200/SOCP.149.1.116-118
• Yates, J. & Skinner, S. (2021). How do female engineers conceptualise career advancement in engineering: a template analysis. Career Development International, 26(5), 697-719. doi:DOI 10.1108/CDI-01-2021-0016
• Zuo, J. & Tang, S. (2000). Breadwinner status and gender ıdeologies of men and women regarding family roles. Sociological Perspectives, 43(1), 29-43.