Communication Disorders and the inclusion of newcomer African refugees in rural primary schools of British Columbia, Canada

Abstract

In Canadian public primary schools, newcomer West African refugees like other ethnic immigrant students are a visible minority group, often referred as Linguistic and Culturally Different (LCD) students. In the province of British Columbia, newcomer immigrant students are subjected to a battery of tests, as soon as they enroll in the primary public school system. These tests are the provincial Standardized Assessment Tests (SAT) and classroom Teacher Assessment of Learning (TAL) that aim at obtaining data for diagnostic purposes of students‘ learning and teaching purposes. Specific to LCD refugee and immigrant students, they are also assessed on English Language Communication Proficiency (oral and written), Social Skills amongst others, regardless of the degree of proficiency in English language as members of the Anglo-phone Commonwealth countries whose curriculum and medium of instruction is British related. More often, the African immigrants and refugee students of the Anglo-phone African countries are most times diagnosed with English Language Communication Disorders (ELCDs), which has been questioned by some Canadian researchers of Learning Disabilities (LDs) and Multicultural Education (ME), especially with regards to the cultural compatibility of the assessment process/diagnostic tools, and criteria used to assess these LCD refugee and immigrant students. The article discusses the above discourse, with the support of findings of a qualitative ethnographic research findings and related literature

Keywords

• Communication Disorders, Primary Education, Learning Disabilities, Multicultural Education, Refugees, Canada

References

1. Adger, C. T., Wolfram, W., & Christian, D. (2007). Dialects in schools and communities. (2 nd
2. ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
3. Andrews, J., & Lupart, J. (2000). The inclusive classroom. Educating exceptional children. Scarborough, ON: Nelson Thompson Learning.
4. Ashworth, M. (1975). Results and issues from a national survey of ESL programs. In A. Wolfgang (Eds.), Education of immigrant students: Issues and answers. (pp. 84-94).Toronto: OISE press.
5. Ashworth, M. (1978). Immigrant children and Canadian schools. Toronto, ON: McClelland & Stewart Ltd.
6. Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
7. Barakett, J. & Cleghorn, A. (2000). Sociology of education: An introductory view from Canada. Scarborough, ON: Prentice Hall Allyn & Bacon.
8. Birnbaum, W. B. (2008). English Language Learners with disabilities. A resource guide for educators. Edwin Mellen Press.

9. BLAC, (1994). Experiences elsewhere related to the educational needs of black learners in Nova Scotia. Halifax: Black Learners Academy Committee.
10. British Columbia Ministry of Education, (1997). Language education policy. Retrieved www.bced.gov.bc.ca/policy/policies/language_educ.htm. November 10, 2006, from
11. British Columbia Ministry of Education, ( 2004). Diversity in BC schools. A framework. www.bced.gov.bc.ca/sco/resources.htm Dec 2, 2006, from
12. British Columbia Ministry of Education, (2006). 2005/2006 Summary of key information. Retrieved May 20, 2006, from www.bced.gov.bc.ca/reporting
13. British Columbia Multicultural Advisory Council, (2005). Strategic framework for action: A strategy to stimulate joint action on multiculturalism and the elimination of racism in British Columbia. Submitted to Honorable Murray Coell, Minister of Community, Aboriginal and Women‘s Services. Retrieved Dec 4, 2006, from www.ag.gov.bc.ca/sam/framework/pdf/framework.pdf
14. Citizen and Immigration Canada, (2004). Refugee policy. Retrieved June 27, 2004 from www.cic.gc/refugees
15. Crain, W. (2000). Theories of development. Concepts and applications. (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
16. Creswell, W. J. (2005). Educational research. Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. (2 Pearson. nd
17. ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ:
18. Dei, G.J.S. (1996a). Listening to voices: Developing pedagogy of change from the narrative of African-Canadian students and parents. In K. S. Brethwaite & C. E. James (Ed.), Educating African Canadians (pp. 32-57). Toronto: James Lorimer & Co.
19. Dei, G.J.S. (1996b). Black African Canadian students‘ perspectives on school racism. In M. J. Alladin (Ed.). Racism in Canadian schools. (pp. 42-57). Toronto: Harcourt Brace.
20. Delpit, L., & Dowdy, K. J. (2002). The skin that we speak. Thoughts on language and culture in the classroom. New York: New Press.
21. Delpit, L. (2006). Other people‘s children: Cultural conflict in the classroom. (2nd ed.) New York: The New Press.
22. DeVito, A., J., Shimoni, R., & Clark, D. (2008). Messages. Building interpersonal communication skills. (3rd ed.). Toronto: Pearson.
23. Dirks, E. G. (1977). Canada‘s refugee policy: Indifference or opportunism? McGill- Queen‘s University Press. D'Oyley, R. V., & Carl, E. J. (1998). Re/visioning: Canadian perspectives on the education of Africans in the late 20th century. North York, Ont.: Captus Press.
24. Fafunwa, A. B. (1987). Education in the mother tongue: A Nigerian experience. Journal of African Studies. 4(2), 285 – 299.
25. Fafunwa, A. B. (1978). For African Children the Village Community Is One Big Family of Teachers: The UNESCO Courier. May 1978. pp. 11 – 15.
26. Foster, L. (1994). Immigration, education, and the family. In A. Howard, B. Allan, B. Meyer, & L. Foster, (Eds.), Immigration and refugee policy. (pp.548-611). Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
27. Frieberg, L. K. (1997). Communication disorders in children. Educating exceptional children. (9th ed.). Sluice Dock, Connecticut: Dushkin Publishing, Brown & Benchmark publishers.
28. Gollnick, M. D. & Chinn, C. P. (2009). Multicultural education in a pluralistic society. Upper saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Pearson.
29. Harry, B. & Klinger, J. (2006). Why are so many minority students in special education? Teachers College Press, New York.
30. Hoffman, D. (2006). Dissent politics and the war in Sierra Leone. Africa Today. 52: 3-22.
31. Holstein, J. & Gubrium, J. (1997). Active interviewing. In D. Silverman (Ed.). Qualitative research: Theory, method and practice. (pp.113-129). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
32. Hutchinson, L. N. (2007). Inclusion of exceptional learners in Canadian schools: A practical handbook for teachers. Toronto: Prentice Hall.
33. Hunt, N, & Marshall, K. (2005). Exceptional children and youth. An introduction to special education (4th ed.). Boston & New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.
34. Kirk, A.S., Gallagher, J.J, & Anastasiow, J. N. (2003). Educating exceptional children. (10th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company.
35. Katz, L. L. (1999). In pursuit of multicultural curriculum. Independent School 58(2), 31
36. Kissen, T. R., & Carr, P. R. (1997). Different perception of race in education: racial minority and white teachers. Toronto: Canadian Journal of Education .Winter 22 (1), 67.
37. Learning Disabilities Association of Canada. (2002): Official definition of learning disabilities. Retrieved June 10, 2003 from www.Idac-taac.ca/english/Idac.htm
38. McIntosh, K. (2000). Evaluation and testing for immigrant student at the start of 21st century. March 5, 2000. www.cesc.ca/pceradocs/2000/00DOyley_etal_e.pdf
39. McKibbin, R. C. (1995). Distinguishing Languages differences from Language Disorders in Linguistically and Culturally diverse students. Multicultural Education, National Association of Multicultural Education. Summer, 12-16.
40. Meier, R. D. (2004). The young child‘s memory for words. Developing first and second language and literacy. New York: Teachers College Press.
41. Ogbu, J. U., & Matute-Bianchi, M. E. (1986). Understanding socio-cultural factors: Knowledge, identity, and social adjustment. In J. U. Ogbu, & M. E. Matute- Bianch (Eds.), Beyond language: Social and cultural factors in schooling language minority students (pp. 73-142). Sacramento, CA: State Department of Education, Bilingual Education Office.
42. Rader, D. (2003). New kid in school. Using literature to help children in transition. New York: Teachers College Press.
43. Razack, S. (1998). Looking white people in the eye: Gender, race, and culture in the classrooms. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
44. Razack, S. (1993). Story-telling for social change. Gender and Education, 5(1), 55- 70.
45. Rockhill, K., & Tomic, P. (1995). Situating ESL between speech and silence. (pp 209-229). In J. Gaskell, & J. Willinsky (Eds.), Gender In/forms curriculum: From enrichment to transformation. New York: Teachers College Press:
46. Samovar, L. A., Porter, R.E. & McDaniel, E. R. (2006). Communication between cultures. (6 ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. th
47. Samuda, J. R. (1995). Assessing the abilities of minority students within a multiethnic milieu. In W. L. Roberts & A. C. Rodney (Eds.). Contemporary Canadian education issues. (pp. 290-305) Toronto: Nelson Canada.
48. Schultz, A. (1973). Collected papers. The problem of social reality. (Vol.1). The Hague. Martinus Nijhoff.
49. Stotsky, S. (2002). Loosing our language. How multicultural classroom instruction is undermining our children‘s ability to read, write and reason. San Francisco: Encounter books.
50. Thiong'o, N. (1986). Decolonizing the mind: The politics of language in African literature. London, UK: Heinemann Educational Books
51. Trumbull, E. (2001). Bridging cultures between home and school. A guide for teachers. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum Associates.
52. van der Geest, S. (2001). The politics of age and gerontocracy in Africa. Ethnographies of the past and memories of the present. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.
53. Vygotsky, L. S. (1956). Thoughts and language (Trans: A Kazulin). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1986.
54. Vygotsky, L. S. (1931). The history and development of the higher mental functions (M.Cole trans). Excerpt in M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman (Eds.), L. S. Vygotsky: Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978, chap.5.
55. Winton, H. M. (1989). The role of standardized testing in the admission of minority students. In E. W.Ward, & M. M. Cross (Eds.), Key issues in minority education: Research, directions and practical implications. (p. 155-170). Centre for Research on Minority Education. Norman, OK: The University of Oklahoma.
56. Winzer, M. (2002). Children with exceptionalities in Canadian classrooms. (6th ed.). Toronto: Prentice Hall.
57. Wolfgang, A. (1975). Education of immigrant students. Issues and answers. Toronto: OISE.
58. Young, S. C. & Young A. G. Jr. (2001). Predictors of mainstream teacher‘s attitudes toward ESL students. TESOL Quarterly Vol. 35 (1), 22-24.