Formation and prevention of mycotoxins in dried figs

Abstract

Dried fig (Ficus carica L.) is one of Turkey’s major agricultural products with significant economic importance, particularly cultivated intensively in the Aegean region. Owing to its high nutritional value and rich dietary fiber content, dried fig is considered a beneficial food for human health; however, it is susceptible to contamination by mycotoxigenic molds under inappropriate harvesting, drying, storage, and transportation conditions. Various fungal species, predominantly Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria, and Fusarium, can produce mycotoxins in dried figs, posing potential health risks to consumers. Reported mycotoxins in dried figs include aflatoxins (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂), ochratoxin A (OTA), fumonisins (FB₁, FB₂), enniatins, beauvericin (BEA), Alternaria toxins, deoxynivalenol (DON), zearalenone (ZEA), and T-2/HT-2 toxins, among which AF and OTA are the most commonly detected. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has classified AFB₁ as a Group 1 carcinogen, strongly associating it with the development of liver cancer. Mycotoxin formation is strongly influenced by factors such as high temperature and humidity, fruit damage, insufficient drying, and improper storage conditions. In particular, dried figs that are inadequately dried or stored under unsuitable conditions are highly susceptible to AF and OTA contamination. To mitigate these risks, integrated approaches involving good agricultural practices, controlled drying techniques, proper storage conditions, and physical, chemical, and biological control strategies are widely employed. According to Turkish and European Union food regulations, the maximum permissible limit for AFB₁ in dried figs is 6 µg/kg, while the total aflatoxin limit is 10 µg/kg. Therefore, ensuring the safety of dried figs as a food product requires implementing selective sorting systems, optical scanning technologies, and rapid analytical methods, while adopting a comprehensive approach across all stages of the production chain to minimize mycotoxin risks and ensure strict adherence to quality control measures.

Keywords

• Dried Figs
• Mycotoxins
• Fig Drying
• Aflatoxin
• Ochratoxin

Kuru incirde oluşan mikotoksinler ve önleme yöntemleri

Abstract

Kuru incir (Ficus carica L.), Türkiye’nin tarımsal üretim ve ihracatında önemli bir yere sahip olup özellikle Ege Bölgesi’nde yoğun olarak yetiştirilmektedir. Yüksek besin değeri ve zengin diyet lifi içeriği nedeniyle insan sağlığı açısından yararlı bir gıda olarak değerlendirilen kuru incir, uygun olmayan hasat, kurutma, depolama ve taşıma koşullarına maruz kaldığında mikotoksijenik küflerle kontaminasyon riski taşımaktadır. Başta Aspergillus, Penicillium, Alternaria ve Fusarium türleri olmak üzere çeşitli küfler, kuru incirde insan sağlığı için tehlikeli mikotoksinlerin oluşumuna neden olabilmektedir. Kuru incirde rapor edilen mikotoksinler arasında aflatoksinler (AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂), okratoksin A (OTA), fumonisinler (FB₁, FB₂), enniatinler, beauverisin (BEA), Alternaria toksinleri, deoksinivalenol (DON), zearalenon (ZEA) ve T-2/HT-2 toksinleri yer almakta olup, bunlar arasında özellikle AF ve OTA gelişimi en yaygın olarak gözlenmektedir. Uluslararası Kanser Araştırmaları Ajansı (IARC), AFB₁’i Grup 1 karsinojen olarak sınıflandırmakta ve karaciğer kanseri ile güçlü bir şekilde ilişkilendirmektedir. Mikotoksin oluşumu; yüksek sıcaklık ve nem, meyve zedelenmeleri, yetersiz kurutma ve uygunsuz depolama koşulları gibi faktörlerden önemli ölçüde etkilenmekte, özellikle yetersiz kurutulan veya uygun olmayan şartlarda depolanan kuru incirler AF ve OTA kontaminasyonuna karşı daha duyarlı hale gelmektedir. Bu riskleri en aza indirmek amacıyla iyi tarım uygulamaları, kontrollü kurutma süreçleri, uygun depolama koşulları ve fiziksel, kimyasal ile biyolojik kontrol stratejileri entegre edilerek kullanılmaktadır. Türkiye ve Avrupa Birliği gıda mevzuatına göre, kuru incirde AFB₁ için maksimum yasal limit 6 µg/kg, toplam aflatoksinler için ise 10 µg/kg olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu kapsamda, kuru incirin güvenli bir gıda ürünü olarak işlenebilmesi için selektif ayıklama sistemleri, optik tarama teknolojileri ve hızlı analiz yöntemlerinin kullanımı büyük önem taşımakta; ayrıca mikotoksin riskinin etkin şekilde yönetilebilmesi için üretim zincirinin tüm aşamalarında bütüncül bir yaklaşım benimsenerek kalite kontrol süreçlerinin titizlikle uygulanması gerekmektedir.

Keywords

• Kuru İncir
• Mikotoksinler
• İncir Kurutma
• Aflatoksin
• Okratoksin

References

1. Akkaş, C., & Üstündağ, Ö. (2024). Evaluation of rapid alert system for food and feed (RASFF) data for mycotoxin contaminated dried figs originating from Türkiye. Food Control, 162, 110442. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2024.110442.
2. Azaiez, I., Giusti, F., Sagratini, G., Mañes, J., & Fernández-Franzón, M. (2014). Multi-mycotoxins analysis in dried fruit by LC/MS/MS and a modified QuEChERS procedure. Food Analytical Methods, 7(4), 935-945. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12161-013-9785-3
3. Di Sanzo, R., Carabetta, S., Campone, L., Bonavita, S., Iaria, D., Fuda, S., ... & Russo, M. (2018). Assessment of mycotoxins co‐occurrence in Italian dried figs and in dried figs‐based products. Journal of Food Safety, 38(6), e12536. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfs.12536
4. Desa, W. N. M., Mohammad, M., & Fudholi, A. (2019). Review of drying technology of fig. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 88, 93-103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2019.03.018
5. Embaby, E. M., Abeer A, F., & Marwa A, Y. (2022). Control of the toxigenic fungi affecting fig fruits quality. Egyptian Journal of Chemistry, 65(9), 339-347. https://10.21608/ejchem.2022.111742.5090
6. FAO (2025). Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations. Available online at: http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC (Erişim Ağustos 20, 2025)
7. Frisvad, J. C., Hubka, V., Ezekiel, C. N., Hong, S. B., Novßkovß, A., Chen, A. J., ... & Houbraken, J. (2019). Taxonomy of Aspergillus section Flavi and their production of aflatoxins, ochratoxins and other mycotoxins. Studies in Mycology, 93(1), 1-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.simyco.2018.06.001
8. Galán, A. J., Ruiz-Moyano, S., Martín, A., Delgado, J., Álvarez, M., & López-Corrales, M. (2024). Implementation of netting system for production of ‘Calabacita’dried figs: Effects on pest incidence, fruit quality and mycotoxin occurrence. Scientia Horticulturae, 331, 113099. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scienta.2024.113099

9. Galván, A. I., Hernández, A., de Guía Córdoba, M., Martín, A., Serradilla, M. J., López-Corrales, M., & Rodríguez, A. (2022a). Control of toxigenic Aspergillus spp. in dried figs by volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from antagonistic yeasts. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 376, 109772. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109772
10. Galván, A. I., de Guía Córdoba, M., Rodríguez, A., Martín, A., López-Corrales, M., Ruiz-Moyano, S., & Serradilla, M. J. (2022b). Evaluation of fungal hazards associated with dried fig processing. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 365, 109541. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2022.109541
11. Hamanaka, D., Norimura, N., Baba, N., Mano, K., Kakiuchi, M., Tanaka, F., & Uchino, T. (2011). Surface decontamination of fig fruit by combination of infrared radiation heating with ultraviolet irradiation. Food Control, 22(3-4), 375-380. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodcont.2010.09.005
12. Irfan P.K, Vanjakshi V, Prakash M.K, Ravi R, Kudachikar V.B. (2013). Calcium chloride extends the keeping quality of fig fruit (Ficus carica L.) during storage and shelf-life. Postharvest Biology and Technology, 82, 70-75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.postharvbio.2013.02.008
13. Karlovsky, P., Suman, M., Berthiller, F., De Meester, J., Eisenbrand, G., Perrin, I., ... & Dussort, P. (2016). Impact of food processing and detoxification treatments on mycotoxin contamination. Mycotoxin Research, 32, 179-205. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-016-0257-7
14. Liu, L., Xie, M., & Wei, D. (2022). Biological detoxification of mycotoxins: Current status and future advances. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 23(3), 1064. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms23031064
15. Nazareth, T. D. M., Soriano Pérez, E., Luz, C., Meca, G., & Quiles, J. M. (2024). Comprehensive review of aflatoxin and ochratoxin A dynamics: emergence, toxicological impact, and advanced control strategies. Foods, 13(12), 1920. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods13121920
16. Özay, G., Aran, N., & Pala, M. (1995). Influence of harvesting and drying techniques on microflora and mycotoxin contamination of figs. Food/Nahrung, 39(2), 156-165. https://doi.org/10.1002/food.19950390209
17. Petrić, J., Šarkanj, B., Mujić, I., Mujić, A., Sulyok, M., Krska, R., ... & Jokić, S. (2018). Effect of pretreatments on mycotoxin profiles and levels in dried figs. Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju, 69(4), 328-333. https://doi.org/10.2478/aiht-2018-69-3147
18. Passone, M. A., & Etcheverry, M. (2014). Antifungal impact of volatile fractions of Peumus boldus and Lippia turbinata on Aspergillus section Flavi and residual levels of these oils in irradiated peanut. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 168, 17-23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2013.10.009
19. Sandhu, A. K., Islam, M., Edirisinghe, I., & Burton-Freeman, B. (2023). Phytochemical composition and health benefits of figs (fresh and dried): a review of literature from 2000 to 2022. Nutrients, 15(11), 2623. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15112623
20. Schotsmans, W. C., Braun, G., DeLong, J. M., & Prange, R. K. (2008). Temperature and controlled atmosphere effects on efficacy of Muscodor albus as a biofumigant. Biological Control, 44(1), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocontrol.2007.06.007
21. Sengul-Binat, H. (2025). Fig (Ficus carica L.) and its bioactive compounds. Journal of Agroalimentary Processes and Technologies, 31(1), 65-68. https://doi.org/10.59463/JAPT2025.1.7
22. Tejero, P., Martín, A., Rodríguez, A., Galván, A. I., Ruiz-Moyano, S., & Hernández, A. (2021). In vitro biological control of Aspergillus flavus by Hanseniaspora opuntiae L479 and Hanseniaspora uvarum L793, producers of antifungal volatile organic compounds. Toxins, 13(9), 663. https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins13090663
23. TUİK (2025). Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu (TÜİK), http://www.tuik.gov.tr, (Erişim Ağustos 20, 2025)