Decision-making under operational pressure: A study on air cargo employees

Abstract

This study examines the relationship between perceived time pressure and decision-making styles among air cargo workers. Air cargo operations require speed, accuracy, procedural compliance, and coordination within a safety-critical environment. Drawing on bounded rationality and dual-process perspectives, the study evaluates rational, intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous decision-making styles separately. A quantitative, cross-sectional, and correlational design was used. Data were collected through an online survey from 240 operational employees working in air cargo companies in Türkiye. Confirmatory factor analysis assessed construct validity, and internal consistency coefficients assessed reliability. Hypotheses were tested through correlation and hierarchical regression analyses. Perceived time pressure was negatively associated with rational decision-making and positively associated with intuitive, dependent, avoidant, and spontaneous decision-making. Contrary to the initial hypothesis, its positive association with dependent decision-making suggests that seeking advice or approval may serve coordination and risk-sharing functions in air cargo operations. The results do not indicate a simple shift from analytical to intuitive processing. They reveal a multidimensional pattern in which several decision tendencies become salient together. The study extends decision-making style and dual-process perspectives by showing that operational pressure is associated with the joint salience of cognitive, social, and action-oriented tendencies. It also suggests that the meaning of dependent decision-making may vary across organizational contexts.

Keywords

• Time pressure
• decision-making styles
• air cargo
• aviation
• operational pressure

Ethical Statement

This article meets the standards of research and publication ethics.

Operasyonel baskı altında karar verme: Hava kargo çalışanları üzerine bir çalışma

Abstract

Bu çalışma, hava kargo çalışanlarında algılanan zaman baskısı ile karar verme stilleri arasındaki ilişkiyi incelemektedir. Hava kargo operasyonları, emniyet-kritik bir ortamda hız, doğruluk, prosedürel uyum ve koordinasyonun birlikte sürdürülmesini gerektirir. Sınırlı rasyonellik ve çift süreç yaklaşımına dayanan çalışmada rasyonel, sezgisel, bağımlı, kaçıngan ve kendiliğinden karar verme stilleri ayrı ayrı ele alınmıştır. Araştırma nicel, kesitsel ve ilişkisel bir tasarımla yürütülmüştür. Veriler, Türkiye’deki hava kargo işletmelerinde çalışan 240 operasyon personelinden çevrim içi anketle toplanmıştır. Yapı geçerliği doğrulayıcı faktör analiziyle, güvenirlik iç tutarlılık katsayılarıyla değerlendirilmiştir. Hipotezler korelasyon ve hiyerarşik regresyon analizleriyle test edilmiştir. Algılanan zaman baskısı rasyonel karar vermeyle negatif; sezgisel, bağımlı, kaçıngan ve kendiliğinden karar vermeyle pozitif yönde ilişkili bulunmuştur. Başlangıçtaki hipotezin tersine, bağımlı karar vermeyle ortaya çıkan pozitif ilişki, görüş ve onay aramanın hava kargo operasyonlarında koordinasyon ve risk paylaşımı işlevi görebileceğini düşündürmektedir. Bulgular, analitik süreçlerden sezgisel süreçlere basit bir geçişe işaret etmemektedir. Bunun yerine, birden fazla karar eğiliminin aynı anda belirginleştiği çok boyutlu bir örüntü ortaya koymaktadır. Çalışma, operasyonel baskının bilişsel, sosyal ve eylem odaklı eğilimlerin birlikte belirginleşmesiyle ilişkili olduğunu göstererek karar verme stilleri ve çift süreç literatürünü genişletmektedir. Bağımlı karar vermenin anlamı örgütsel bağlama göre değişebilir. Bu sonuç, karar verme stillerinin örgütsel koşullardan bağımsız ve değişmez eğilimler olarak yorumlanamayacağını ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• Zaman baskısı
• karar verme stilleri
• hava kargo
• havacılık
• operasyonel baskı

References

1. Alotaibi, A., Gambatese, J., Lee, W.-H., & Tymvios, N. (2025). An exploratory evaluation of impact of task characteristics on mental workload and safety using multi-approach methods in laboratory environment. Safety Science, 191, 106964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2025.106964
2. Anderson, C. J. (2003). The psychology of doing nothing: Forms of decision avoidance result from reason and emotion. Psychological Bulletin, 129(1), 139–167. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.129.1.139
3. Avoyan, A., He, H., & Lu, K. (2025). Team work under time constraints. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 237, 107170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2025.107170
4. Bakken, B. T., Hansson, M., & Hærem, T. (2024). Challenging the doctrine of “non-discerning” decision-making: Investigating the interaction effects of cognitive styles. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 97(1), 209–232. https://doi.org/10.1111/joop.12467
5. Bavoľár, J., & Orosová, O. (2015). Decision-making styles and their associations with decision-making competencies and mental health. Judgment and Decision Making, 10(1), 115–122. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500003223
6. Bruine de Bruin, W., Parker, A. M., & Fischhoff, B. (2007). Individual differences in adult decision-making competence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(5), 938–956. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.92.5.938
7. Cvjetković, M., Primorac, D., & Fotova Čiković, K. (2025). Understanding the impact of burnout on decision-making styles. Organizacija, 58(4), 313–326. https://doi.org/10.2478/orga-2025-0019
8. Endsley, M. R. (1995). Toward a theory of situation awareness in dynamic systems. Human Factors, 37(1), 32–64. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872095779049543

9. Evans, J. S. B. T., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8(3), 223–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691612460685
10. Faul, F., Erdfelder, E., Buchner, A., & Lang, A.-G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160. https://doi.org/10.3758/BRM.41.4.1149
11. Flin, R., O’Connor, P., & Crichton, M. (2008). Safety at the sharp end: A guide to non-technical skills. Ashgate.
12. Fogaça, L. B., Henriqson, E., Carim Junior, G., & Lando, F. (2022). Airline disruption management: A naturalistic decision-making perspective in an operational control centre. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 16(1), 3–28. https://doi.org/10.1177/15553434211061024
13. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of Marketing Research, 18(1), 39–50. https://doi.org/10.1177/002224378101800104
14. Gerede, E. (2006). Havacılık emniyeti ve havacılık güvenliği kavramları arasındaki ilişki ve farkların belirlenmesine yönelik bir araştırma. Yönetim, 17(54), 26–37.
15. Gerede, E. (2015). A qualitative study on the exploration of challenges to the implementation of the safety management system in aircraft maintenance organizations in Turkey. Journal of Air Transport Management, 47, 230–240. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jairtraman.2015.06.006
16. Gigerenzer, G., & Gaissmaier, W. (2011). Heuristic decision making. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 451–482. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-120709-145346
17. Green, S. B. (1991). How many subjects does it take to do a regression analysis? Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(3), 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327906mbr2603_7
18. Harren, V. A. (1979). A model of career decision making for college students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 14(2), 119–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-8791(79)90065-4
19. Heitz, R. P. (2014). The speed-accuracy tradeoff: History, physiology, methodology, and behavior. Frontiers in Neuroscience, 8, 150. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnins.2014.00150
20. Holder, B., Finseth, T., & Lubold, N. (2024). Cognitive skills for flight path management. Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making, 18(3), 209–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/15553434241248298
21. Kadoić, N., Gligora Marković, M., & Jagačić, T. (2024). Analyzing correlations between approaches to analyzing decision-making styles. Croatian Operational Research Review, 15(1), 13–25. https://doi.org/10.17535/crorr.2024.0002
22. Kahneman, D. (2011). Thinking, fast and slow. Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
23. Kim, B. S., Kim, W., & Min, J. H. (2025). Decision-making styles and cognitive biases: Experimental results from a Korean sample. Journal of Behavioral and Experimental Economics, 114, 102329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socec.2024.102329
24. Klein, G. (2008). Naturalistic decision making. Human Factors, 50(3), 456–460. https://doi.org/10.1518/001872008X288385
25. Kock, N. (2015). Common method bias in PLS-SEM: A full collinearity assessment approach. International Journal of e-Collaboration, 11(4), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.4018/ijec.2015100101
26. Kyriazos, T. A. (2018). Applied psychometrics: Sample size and sample power considerations in factor analysis (EFA, CFA) and SEM in general. Psychology, 9(8), 2207–2230. https://doi.org/10.4236/psych.2018.98126
27. Lavin, M. (1993). Wives’ employment, time pressure, and mail/phone order shopping: An exploratory study. Journal of Direct Marketing, 7(1), 42–49. https://doi.org/10.1002/dir.4000070107
28. MacCallum, R. C., Widaman, K. F., Zhang, S., & Hong, S. (1999). Sample size in factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 4(1), 84–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.4.1.84
29. Maxwell, S. E., & Cole, D. A. (2007). Bias in cross-sectional analyses of longitudinal mediation. Psychological Methods, 12(1), 23–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.12.1.23
30. Narangerel, E.-O., & Boz Semerci, A. (2020). The effects of workload, work control and self-efficacy in decision making on decision making styles. International Journal of Behavior Studies in Organizations, 3, 22–32. https://doi.org/10.32038/JBSO.2020.03.04
31. Orasanu, J. M. (2010). Flight crew decision-making. In B. G. Kanki, R. L. Helmreich, & J. Anca (Eds.), Crew resource management (2nd ed., pp. 147–179). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-374946-8.10005-6
32. Park, Y., Sasangohar, F., & Peres, S. C. (2025). The role of time pressure on procedural performance: A scoping review. Proceedings of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society Annual Meeting, 69(1), 781–785. https://doi.org/10.1177/10711813251369783
33. Parker, A., Lomi, A., & Zappa, P. (2024). Effect of time pressure on informal advice relations across organizational units: Evidence from a study of collaboration within a Formula One racing team. Organization Studies, 45(10), 1441–1465. https://doi.org/10.1177/01708406241261448
34. Parker, A. M., Bruine de Bruin, W., & Fischhoff, B. (2007). Maximizers versus satisficers: Decision-making styles, competence, and outcomes. Judgment and Decision Making, 2(6), 342–350. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1930297500000486
35. Phillips, S. D., Pazienza, N. J., & Ferrin, H. H. (1984). Decision-making styles and problem-solving appraisal. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(4), 497–502. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.31.4.497
36. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J. Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
37. Reason, J. (1997). Managing the risks of organizational accidents. Ashgate.
38. Reilly, M. D. (1982). Working wives and convenience consumption. Journal of Consumer Research, 8(4), 407–418. https://doi.org/10.1086/208881
39. Roberts, K. H. (1990). Some characteristics of one type of high reliability organization. Organization Science, 1(2), 160–176. https://doi.org/10.1287/orsc.1.2.160
40. Rohrer, J. M., Hünermund, P., Arslan, R. C., & Elson, M. (2022). That’s a lot to process! Pitfalls of popular path models. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 5(2), Article 25152459221095827. https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459221095827
41. Salas, E., Rosen, M. A., & DiazGranados, D. (2010). Expertise-based intuition and decision making in organizations. Journal of Management, 36(4), 941–973. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206309350084
42. Salo, I., & Allwood, C. M. (2011). Decision-making styles, stress and gender among investigators. Policing: An International Journal of Police Strategies & Management, 34(1), 97–119. https://doi.org/10.1108/13639511111106632
43. Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1995). Decision-making style: The development and assessment of a new measure. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 55(5), 818–831. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164495055005017
44. Simon, H. A. (1955). A behavioral model of rational choice. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 69(1), 99–118. https://doi.org/10.2307/1884852
45. Simon, H. A. (1979). Rational decision making in business organizations. The American Economic Review, 69(4), 493–513.
46. Taşdelen, A. (2001). Öğretmen adaylarının bazı psiko sosyal değişkenlere göre karar verme stilleri. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 10(10), 40–52.
47. Taşdelen, A. K. (2004). Karar verme stilleri ölçeğinin öğretmen adayları için geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, (16), 118–127.
48. Thunholm, P. (2004). Decision-making style: Habit, style or both? Personality and Individual Differences, 36(4), 931–944. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00162-4
49. Toplak, M. E., Sorge, G. B., Benoit, A., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2010). Decision-making and cognitive abilities: A review of associations between Iowa Gambling Task performance, executive functions, and intelligence. Clinical Psychology Review, 30(5), 562–581. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpr.2010.04.002
50. Torlak, Ö., Doğan, V., & Özkara, B. Y. (2013). Üniversite öğrencilerinin yaşamlarında algıladıkları zaman baskısının plansız satın alma eğilimleri üzerindeki etkisi. Pazarlama ve Pazarlama Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(12), 1–20.
51. Tversky, A., & Kahneman, D. (1974). Judgment under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases. Science, 185(4157), 1124–1131. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.185.4157.1124
52. Ulanday, M. L., Verdejo, M., Cayanan, E., Santos, J., & Obispo, R. D. (2024). Making decisions: An analysis of styles and time pressure among selected graduate students in the Philippines. Diversitas Journal, 9(1_Special), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.48017/dj.v9iSpecial1.2832
53. Valentin, S., & White, C. (2026). Decision-making styles and intolerance of uncertainty. Psychological Reports. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941251415319
54. Weick, K. E., Sutcliffe, K. M., & Obstfeld, D. (1999). Organizing for high reliability: Processes of collective mindfulness. In R. I. Sutton & B. M. Staw (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior (Vol. 21, pp. 81–123). JAI Press.
55. Wickelgren, W. A. (1977). Speed-accuracy tradeoff and information processing dynamics. Acta Psychologica, 41(1), 67–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(77)90012-9
56. Wiggins, M., & O’Hare, D. (1995). Expertise in aeronautical weather-related decision making: A cross-sectional analysis of general aviation pilots. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 1(4), 305–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/1076-898X.1.4.305
57. Zhou, Y.-B., Ruan, S.-J., Zhang, K., Bao, Q., & Liu, H.-Z. (2024). Time pressure effects on decision-making in intertemporal loss scenarios: An eye-tracking study. Frontiers in Psychology, 15, 1451674. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1451674