İlk Çağlardan Günümüze Yeraltı Yapıları, Kaya Yapıları ve Kaya Mekaniği

Abstract

Yeraltındaki alanlarının kullanımı insanlar için antik dönemlere uzanan eski bir alışkanlıktır. Atalarımız, mağaraları vahşi hayattan korunmak için barınak olarak kullandılar, ayrıca değerli mineralleri çıkarmak için kazarak yeraltı boşlukları oluşturdular. Bu boşlukları kutsal alan, mezar veya depo olarak kullandılar.  Bu kullanım amaçlarına ek olarak, savaşlar sırasında saldırı veya surları geçmek amacıyla tüneller inşa ettiler. Daha sonraları, tüneller yerleşim yerlerine su getirmek veya söz konusu alanları selden korumak amacıyla yapıldı. İlk kez ne zaman kullanıldıkları bilinmemekle birlikte, birbirleriyle bağlantılı olarak inşa edilen yer altı yapıları insanlık tarihi boyunca barınma amacıyla da kullanıldı. Sonraki yüzyıllarda, ulaşım sistemlerine duyulan ihtiyaç nedeniyle yeni kazı tekniklerinin kullanıldığı ulaşım ve iletim tünelleri inşa edildi. Bu dönemde, demiryolu tünelleri ve karayolu tünelleri yapıldı. Bu yapıların çoğunluğu kaya ortamda yer almaktadır. İlk kazılar elle yapılmış olup,  daha sonra kolay kazmak için ateşin kullanıldığı bilinmektedir. Bu tekniği, barut, patlayıcılar ve tünel açma makinaları takip etmiştir. Şu veya bu şekilde, eski  uygarlıklar kaya mekaniğinin temel prensiplerini kullanmış ve bu prensipleri yeraltı yapılarının inşasında uygulamışlardır. Kaya mekaniğinin prensipleri, tüm bu yapıların olmazsa olmaz unsurudur. Bu çalışmada, kaya mekaniğinin tarihçesi kısaca anlatılacak, tarihi ve anıtsal yeraltı ve kaya yapılarından örnekler sunulacaktır.

Keywords

• Antik yeraltı kaya yapıları,kaya mekaniği tarihçesi,kaya mühendisliği,kaya mekaniği uygulamaları

Underground Structures, Rock Structures and Rock Mechanics fFrom Ancient Era to the Modern Age

Abstract

Usage of underground space is an old habit for human beings from the ancient era. Our ancestors have used caves as a shelter for protection from the wild life and nature and they excavated caves to extract valuable minerals. They also used them as sanctuaries, tombs or for storage of goods. In addition, they built tunnels to be used as assault systems or to underpass fortifications during ancient warfare. Later on, tunnels were driven to supply water to the towns or to protect the towns from floods. They also built them for communication purposes. Though not knowing the exact time when they were first used, natural underground structures, which have several interconnections, were also built for underground dwelling purposes through the human history. In the following centuries, due to the need of transportation facilities, transportation tunnels were constructed, where new excavation techniques were also used. Navigation canal tunnels, railway tunnels and road tunnels were constructed during that period. All these structures were mostly excavated in rocks. The first excavations were performed manually. Later on, to excavate more easily, fire technique had been used. This was followed by the methods in which gunpowder, explosives and tunneling machinery were used. By some means or other, ancient civilizations had used fundamental principles of rock mechanics and applied these principles in the construction of the underground structures. Principles of rock mechanics are the sine qua non for all of these structures and facilities. In this study, the history and evaluation of rock mechanics will be given briefly and some examples of historical and monumental underground and rock structures will be presented.

Keywords

• ancient underground rock structures,history of rock mechanics,rock engineering,rock mechanic applications

References

1. Akoglu, K.G., Saltik, E.N.C., 2015. Hydric dilation of Mount Nemrut sandstones and its control by surfactants. Journal of Cultural Heritage 16, 276-283.
2. Akyol V., 2012. Sinop Turizm Potansiyeli (Tourism Potential of Sinop). http://turizm.sinop.edu.tr/turizm_isletmeciligi_ve_otelcilik_yuksekokulu/faaliyetler/turizm_durumu.pdf. Accessed 31.12.2015.
3. Alemohammad, S.H. & Gharari, S., 2010. Qanat:An ancient invention for water management in Iran. http://hamed.mit.edu/sites/default/files/Qanat_WHC_2010.pdf. Accessed 09.08.2017.
4. America’s Library, 2016. Mount Rushmore National Memorial a Local Legacy. http://www.americaslibrary.gov/es/sd/es_sd_mount_1.html. Accessed 09.01.2016.
5. Aydan, Ö. & Ulusay R., 2003. Geotechnical and geoenvironmental characteristics of man-made underground structures in Cappadocia, Turkey. Engineering Geology, 69:245-272.
6. Aydan, Ö. & Ulusay R., 2013. Geomechanical evaluation of Derinkuyu antique underground city and its implications in geoengineering. Rock Mechanics and Rock Engineering, 46:731-754.
7. Aydan, Ö. & Ulusay R., Tokashiki, N., 2014. A new rock mass quality rating system: Rock mass quality rating (RMRQ) and its application to the estimation of geomechanical charactersitics of rock masses. Rock Mech. Rock Eng., 47:1255-1276.
8. Barton, N., 2002a. Some New Q-value correlations to assist in site characterization and tunnel design. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 39, 185-216.

9. Barton, N.,2002b: Deformation moduli and rock mass characterization. Tunneling & Underground Space Technology, 17, 221-222..
10. Bonapace,P., Eder, M., Galler, R., Moritz, B., Schneider, E., Schubert, W., 2010. NATM The Austrian Practice of Conventional Tunnelling. American Society for Geomechanics, Salzburg, 73p.
11. Brown, E.T., 2011. Fifty Years of the ISRM and associated progress in rock mechanics. 12th ISRM International Congress on Rock Mechanics.
12. Cai, M., Kaiser, P.K., Uno, H., Tasaka, Y., Minami, M., 2004. Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus and strength of jointed hard rock masses using GSI system. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences 41(1), 3-19.
13. Deere, D.U., Hendron, A.J., Patton, F.D., Cording, E.J., 1967. Design of surface and near surface construction in rock. In Failure and breakage of Rock, Proc. 8th U.S. Symposium Rock Mechanics, New York. Soc. Min. Engr. Am. Inst. Metall. Petrolm.Engrs.,237-302.
14. Erdem, A. , 2008. Subterranean space use in Cappdocia: The Uchisar example. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology 23:492-499.
15. Evelpidou, N., Figueiredo, T., Mauro, F., Tecim, V., Vassilopoulos, A., 2010. Natural Heritage from East to West. Case studies from 6 EU countries, Verlag Berlin Heidelbarg: Springer, 2010.
16. Garry, D., 2012. Handbook of Tunnel Engineering Design, Construction and Risk Assessment. : Auris Reference, London, 357.
17. Gelisli, K., Seren, A., Babacan, A.E., Catakli, A., Ersoy, A., Kandemir, R., 2010. The Sumela Monastery slope in Maçka, Trabzon, Northeast Turkey: rock mass properties and stability assessment. Bull. Eng. Geo. Environ. 70, 577-583.
18. Gencturk, B., Kilic, S., Erdik, M., and Pinho, R.,2007. Assessment of Stone Arch Bridges under Static Loading Using Analytical Techniques. New Horizons and Better Practices, 43:1-10.
19. Gokceoglu, C., Aksoy, H., 2000. New Approaches to the characterization of clay-bearing, densely jointed and weak rock masses. Engineering Geology, 58: 1-23.
20. Goodman, R.E., 1989. Introduction to Rock Mechanics (2nd Edition). John Wiley & Sons, New York, 562p.
21. Hoek, E., 2007. Practical Rock Engineering.https://www.rocscience.com/learning/hoek-s-corner
22. Hoek E., Kaiser, P.K., Bawden, W.F., 1995. Support of underground excavations in hard rock. Brookfield: Balkema. Rotterdam, 215p.
23. Hoek, E., Marinos, P., Benissi, M., 1998. Applicability of the geological strength index (GSI) classification for very weak and sheared rock masses: the case of the Athens Schist Formation. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 57(2),151-160.
24. Hood, M. & Brown, E.T., 1999. Mining rock mechanics: yesterday, today and tomorrow. Proceedings, 9th Congress, International Society for Rock Mechanics, Paris, Balkema: Rotterdam, 3:1551-1576.
25. Hoover, H.C., Hoover L.H., 1912. De Re Metallica Translated from the first Latin edition of 1556. The Mining Magazine, London, 641p..
26. Jaeger, J.C., 2009. Rock Mechanics and Engineering. Cambridge. Cambridge Press. 523 p.
27. Kirman, E. & Ulusoy, E., 2005. Paleolitik donemde dogal yerlesim yeri olarak kullanilan Anadolu magaralari”. In Proceedings of Turkiye Kuvaterner Sempozyumu TURQUA-V. Istanbul, ITU Avrasya Yer Bilimleri Enstitusu.
28. Marinos, P., Hoek, E., 2000. GSI: a geological friendly tool for rock mass strength estimation. Proc. of International Conference on Geotechnical and Geological Engineering, Melbourne, 1422-1440.
29. Marinos, P., Hoek, E., 2001: Estimating the geotechnical properties of heterogenous rock masses such as flysch. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 60(2), 85-92.
30. Marinos, V., Marinos, P., Hoek, E., 2005. The geological strength index: applications and limitations. Bull. Eng. Geol. Env. 64(1), 55-65 .
31. Marinos, P., Marinos, V., Hoek, E., 2007. Geological Strength Index (GSI) a characterization tool for assessing engineering properties of rock masses. Underground works under special conditions, 13-21.
32. Minisrty of Culture and Tourism, 2017. Sumela Monastery. http://www.kultur.gov.tr/EN,32834/sumela-monastry.html Accessed 08.01.2016.
33. Osgoui, R.R., Ulusay, R., Unal,E., 2010. An assistant tool for the geological strength index to better characterize poor and very poor rock masses. International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences. 47, 690-697.
34. Paradise, T.R., 2013. Assessment of tafoni distribution and environmental factors on a sandstone djinn block above Petra, Jordan. Applied Geography, 42:176-185.
35. Patton, F.D., 1966.Multiple modes of shear failure in rock. Proc.1st Int. Congress of Rock Mech., Lisbon, 1:509-513. Rihosek, J. ,Bruthans, J., Masin, D., Filippi, M., Carling, G.T., Schweigstillova, J., 2015. Gravity-induced stress as a factor reducing decay of sandstone monuments in Petra, Jordan. Journal of Cultural Heritage.
36. Romana, M., Perucho, A., Olalla, C., 2007. Underground works under special conditions. Taylor & Francis ,London, Leiden, New York, Philadelphia, Singapore, 180p..
37. Salam, M.E.A.E., 2002. Construction of underground works and tunnels in ancient Egypt. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology,17: 295-304.
38. Singh, M., Kumar, S.V. Waghmare S.A., 2015. Characterization of 6-11th century A.D. decorative lime plasters of rock cut caves of Ellora. Construction and Building Materials, 98:156-170
39. Sonmez, H., Ulusay, R.,1999. A discussion on the Hoek-Brown failure criterion and suggested modification to the criterion verified by slope stability case studies. Yer Bilimleri, 26:77-99.
40. Szechy, K., 1973. The art of tunneling. Akademiaikiado.Budapest, The Brunel Museum, 2017. The Thames Tunnel. http://www.brunel-museum.org.uk/history/the-thames-tunnel. Accessed 31.05.2017.
41. Topal,T., Deniz B.E., Guchan, N.S., 2015. Decay of limestone statues at Mount Nemrut (Adiyaman, Turkey). International Journal of Architectural Heritage 9, 2015, 44-264.
42. Türkiye Kültür Portalı, 2014. Titus tuneli ve Besikli magara. http://www.kulturportali.gov.tr/turkiye/hatay/gezilecekyer/titus-tuneli-ve-besikli-magara. Accessed 07.09.2014.
43. Ubierna, J.A.J., 1998. Tunnel heritage in Spain: Roots of the underground. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 13(2):131-141.
44. Ulusay, R., Ozkan, I., Unal, E., 1992. Characterization of weak, stratified and clay bearing rock masses for engineering applications. Proc. Of Fractured and Jointed Rock Masses Conference, California, 229-235.
45. Ulusay, R. Sonmez H., 2000. Hoek Brown görgül yenilme ölçütüne ilişkin dğişiklik önerileri ve benlerin uygulanabilirliği. Jeoloji Mühendisliği Dergisi, 53:1-14.
46. Unal, E., Ozkan, I.,1990. Determination of Classification Parameters for Clay-bearing and Stratified Rock Mass. 9th Conference on Ground Control in Mining, Morgantown, USA, 250-259.
47. Unal, E., Ozkan I., Ulusay, R., 1992. Characterization of weak, stratified and clay beraing rock masses. ISRM Symposium: EUROCK’92 Rock Characterization, London, British Geotechnical Society, 330-335.
48. Unal, E., 1996. Modified Rock Mass Classification: M-RMR System – Milestones in Rock Engineering. A Jubilee Collection; Z.T. Bieniawski, Balkema, 203-223.
49. Wikimedia Commons-a, 2017. The Eupalinos Tunnel.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eupalinian_aqueduct.JPG?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
50. Wikimedia Commons-b, 2017. The Thames Tunnel https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Thamestunnel1840.jpg?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
51. Wikimedia Commons-c, 2017. The Tunnel in İstanbul https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Istanbul_Tunel_Karak%C3%B6y_Beyo%C4%9Flu.jpg?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
52. Wikimedia Commons-d, 2017. El Deir monastery in the ancient Jordanian city of Petra. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Petra_Jordan_BW_43.JPG?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
53. Wikimedia Commons-e, 2017. Ellora Temple. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ellora,_The_Temple_2.jpg?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
54. Wikimedia Commons-f, 2017. Kaymaklı underground city in Capadocia.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Kaymakli_underground_city_8923_Nevit_Enhancer.jpg?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017
55. Wikimedia Commons-g, 2017. Nemrut Mountain, head statues.https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Heads_on_Mount_Nemrut.JPG?uselang=tr. Accessed 31.05.2017.
56. Wikimedia Commons-h, 2017. Mount Rushmore sculptures. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Mount_Rushmore_National_Memorial?uselang=tr#/media/File:Rushmore_2.jpg. Accessed 31.05.2017.