Environmental and Healthy Nutrition: Sustainable Diets

Abstract

A part of the world is suffering from hunger, food insecurity, and another part of the world has health problems due to overnutrition. Another problem that affects the world globally is the climate crisis, which is caused by the increase of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions in the atmosphere. One of the most important reasons for these problems is the existence of unsustainable food systems. Food systems put pressure on the environment in terms of climate change, biodiversity, toxic effects, acidification, eutrophication, land use and water use. Existing food systems are increasingly challenged to provide safe, adequate, diversified and nutrient-rich food, due to the constraints of resource scarcity and environmental degradation, and food losses, waste and uneven distribution, as well as unsustainable patterns of production and consumption. Sustainable food systems are systems that ensure food security and nutrition for all without compromising economic, social and environmental fundamentals. With sustainable nutrition and food systems, global greenhouse gas emissions will be reduced and today's resources will be used in the most efficient way without compromising the resources of future generations. The world will move faster towards sustainability as societies prefer diets with low environmental footprint and stop wasting food. The aim of this article is to examine healthy diets across sustainability from multiple perspectives.

Keywords

• Climate change
• Food systems
• Loss of food
• Food waste
• Sustainable nutrition models

ÇEVRESEL VE SAĞLIKLI BESLENME: SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR DİYETLER

Abstract

Dünyanın bir kısmı açlık, gıda güvencesizliği sorunu yaşarken diğer bir kısmı ise aşırı beslenmeye bağlı sağlık sorunlarıyla savaşmaktadır. Küresel olarak dünyayı etkileyen diğer bir sorun ise insan kaynaklı sera gazı emisyonlarının atmosferde artmasıyla meydana gelen iklim krizidir. Bu sorunların en önemli nedenlerinden biri sürdürülemez gıda sistemlerinin varlığıdır. Gıda sistemleri; iklim değişikliği, biyolojik çeşitlilik, toksik etki, asitleşme, ötrofikasyon, arazi kullanımı ve su kullanımı açısından çevre üzerinde bir baskı oluşturmaktadır. Mevcut gıda sistemleri, kaynak kıtlığı ve çevresel bozulmanın getirdiği kısıtlamalar ve gıda kayıpları, israf ve dengesiz dağıtım aynı zamanda sürdürülemez üretim ve tüketim kalıpları nedeniyle güvenli, yeterli, çeşitlendirilmiş ve zengin besin içeriğine sahip gıda sağlama konusunda giderek daha fazla zorlanmaktadır. Sürdürülebilir gıda sistemleri ekonomik, sosyal ve çevresel temellerden ödün vermeden herkes için gıda güvenliğini ve beslenmeyi sağlayan sistemlerdir. Sürdürülebilir beslenme ve gıda sistemleri ile küresel sera gazı emisyon miktarları azaltılacak ve gelecek nesillerin kaynaklarından ödün vermeden günümüz kaynakları en verimli şekilde değerlendirilecektir. Toplumların çeversel ayak izi düşük diyetleri tercih etmesi ve gıda israfına dur demesiyle dünya sürdürülebilirlik yolunda daha hızlı ilerleyecektir. Bu makalenin amacı sürdürülebilirlik genelinde sağlıklı beslenmeyi çok yönlü irdelemektir.

Keywords

• İklim değişikliği
• Gıda sistemleri
• Gıda kaybı
• Gıda israfı
• Sürdürülebilir diyet modelleri

References

1. Aleksandrowicz, L., Green, R., Joy, E. J. M., Smith, P. ve Haines, A. (2016). The impacts of dietary change on greenhouse gas emissions, land use, water use, and health: A systematic review. PLOS ONE, 11(11), e0165797. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0165797
2. Allès, B., Baudry, J., Méjean, C., Touvier, M., Péneau, S., Hercberg, S. ve Kesse-Guyot, E. (2017). Comparison of sociodemographic and nutritional characteristics between self-reported vegetarians, vegans, and meat-eaters from the nutrinet-santé study. Nutrients, 9(9), 1023. doi:10.3390/nu9091023
3. Appleby, P. N. ve Key, T. J. (2016). The long-term health of vegetarians and vegans. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society içinde (C. 75, ss. 287–293). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/S0029665115004334
4. Bach-Faig, A., Berry, E. M., Lairon, D., Reguant, J., Trichopoulou, A., Dernini, S., … Padulosi, S. (2011). Mediterranean diet pyramid today. Science and cultural updates. Public Health Nutrition, 14(12A), 2274–2284. doi:10.1017/S1368980011002515
5. Barbaros, B. ve Kabaran, S. (2014). Akdeniz diyeti ve sağlığı koruyucu eakdeniz diyetitkileri. Beslenme ve Diyet Dergisi, 42(2), 140–147.
6. Barilla Center for Food & Nutrition. (2011). Double Pyramid: Healthy food for people, sustainable food the planet. Parma. http://www.barillacfn.com/uploads/file/72/1277731651_Posi-tionPaper-BarillaCFN_Doppia-Piramide.pdf adresinden erişildi.
7. Baudry, J., Pointereau, P., Seconda, L., Vidal, R., Taupier-Letage, B., Langevin, B., … Kesse-Guyot, E. (2019). Improvement of diet sustainability with increased level of organic food in the diet: findings from the BioNutriNet cohort. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 109(4), 1173–1188. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqy361
8. Béné, C., Oosterveer, P., Lamotte, L., Brouwer, I. D., de Haan, S., Prager, S. D., … Khoury, C. K. (2019, 1 Ocak). When food systems meet sustainability – Current narratives and implications for actions. World Development. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.worlddev.2018.08.011

9. Burlingame, B. ve Dernini, S. (2011). Sustainable diets: the Mediterranean diet as an example. Public health nutrition, 14(12 A), 2285–2287. doi:10.1017/S1368980011002527
10. Carlsson-Kanyama, A. ve González, A. D. (2009). Potential contributions of food consumption patterns to climate change. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition içinde (C. 89, ss. 1704S-1709S). Oxford Academic. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736AA
11. Clark, M. ve Tilman, D. (2017). Comparative analysis of environmental impacts of agricultural production systems, agricultural input efficiency, and food choice. Environmental Research Letters, 12(6), 064016. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/aa6cd5
12. Daley, C. A., Abbott, A., Doyle, P. S., Nader, G. A. ve Larson, S. (2010). A review of fatty acid profiles and antioxidant content in grass-fed and grain-fed beef. Nutrition Journal, 9(1), 10. doi:10.1186/1475-2891-9-10
13. Drewnowski, A., Rehm, C. D., Martin, A., Verger, E. O., Voinnesson, M. ve Imbert, P. (2015). Energy and nutrient density of foods in relation to their carbon footprint. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 101(1), 184–191. doi:10.3945/ajcn.114.092486
14. ESCR-Net. (2021). Economic, Social and Cultural Rights. 17 Nisan 2021 tarihinde https://www.escr-net.org/rights/food adresinden erişildi.
15. Estruch, R., Ros, E., Salas-Salvadó, J., Covas, M.-I., Corella, D., Arós, F., … Martínez-González, M. A. (2018). Primary prevention of cardiovascular disease with a Mediterranean diet supplemented with extra-virgin olive oil or nuts. New England Journal of Medicine, 378(25), e34. doi:10.1056/NEJMoa1800389
16. Fanzo, J., Bellows, A. L., Spiker, M. L., Thorne-Lyman, A. L. ve Bloem, M. W. (2021). The importance of food systems and the environment for nutrition. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 113(1), 7–16. doi:10.1093/ajcn/nqaa313
17. FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP, W. (2020). The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Transforming food systems for affordable healthy diets. Rome: FAO, IFAD, UNICEF, WFP and WHO. doi:10.4060/ca9692en
18. FAO. (2010). International Scientific Symposium: Biodiversity and sustainable diets:United against hunger.
19. FAO. (2017). FAO and The SDGs. Indicators: Measuring up to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development On. doi:10.1136/hrt.28.4.461
20. FAO. (2019). The State of Food and Agriculture 2019. Moving forward on food loss and waste reduction. Rome. doi:10.4324/9781315764788
21. FAO. (2020). Türkiye’nin Gıda Kayıpları ve İsrafının Önlenmesi Azaltılması ve Yönetimine İlişkin Ulusal Strateji Belgesi ve Eylem Planı. Ankara.
22. FAO ve Bioversity International. (2012). Sustainable diets and biodiversity: Directions and solutions for policy, research and action. (B. Burlingame, S. Dernini ve FAO, Ed.). doi:10.1017/S002081830000607X
23. FAO ve WHO. (2015). The Second International Conference on Nutrition:Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Secretariat on the Conference. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i4436e.pdf adresinden erişildi.
24. FAO ve WHO. (2019). Sustainable Healthy Diets - Guiding Principles. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/ca6640en/CA6640EN.pdf adresinden erişildi.
25. Foley, J. A., Defries, R., Asner, G. P., Barford, C., Bonan, G., Carpenter, S. R., … Snyder, P. K. (2005). Global Consequences of Land Use. Science, 309(5734), 570–574. doi:10.1126/science.1111772
26. Foley, J. A., Ramankutty, N., Brauman, K. A., Cassidy, E. S., Gerber, J. S., Johnston, M., … Zaks, D. P. M. (2011). Solutions for a cultivated planet. Nature, 478(7369), 337–342. doi:10.1038/nature10452
27. Fraser, G. E. (2009). Vegetarian diets: What do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases? American Journal of Clinical Nutrition içinde (C. 89, ss. 1607–1619). Oxford Academic. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736K
28. Garnett, T., Smith, P., Nicholson, W. ve Finch, J. (2012). Food systems and greenhouse gas emissions. 26 Nisan 2021 tarihinde https://www.tabledebates.org/chapter/food-systems-and-greenhouse-gas-emissions adresinden erişildi.
29. Gerber, P. J., Steinfeld, H., Henderson, B., Mottet, A., Opio, C., Dijkman, J., … Tempio, G. (2013). Tackling climate change through livestock – A global assessment of emissions and mitigation opportunities. Rome.
30. Gomiero, T., Pimentel, D. ve Paoletti, M. G. (2011, Ocak). Environmental impact of different agricultural management practices: Conventional vs. Organic agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences. Taylor & Francis Group. doi:10.1080/07352689.2011.554355
31. Gülsöz, S. (2017). Yirmi yaş ve üzeri bireylerin sürdürülebilir beslenme konusundaki bilgi düzeylerinin ve uygulamalarının değerlendirilmesi. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi. Başkent Üniversitesi, Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara.
32. Gussow, J. D. ve Clancy, K. L. (1986). Dietary guidelines for sustainability. Journal of Nutrition Education, 18(1), 1–5. doi:10.1016/S0022-3182(86)80255-2
33. Hallström, E., Carlsson-Kanyama, A. ve Börjesson, P. (2015, 15 Mart). Environmental impact of dietary change: A systematic review. Journal of Cleaner Production. Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2014.12.008
34. HLPE. (2014). Food losses and waste in the context of sustainable food systems. A report by the High Level Panel of Experts on Food Security and Nutrition of the Committee on World Food Security. Rome. http://www.fao.org/3/a-i3901e.pdf adresinden erişildi.
35. Hopwood, C. J., Bleidorn, W., Schwaba, T. ve Chen, S. (2020). Health, environmental, and animal rights motives for vegetarian eating. PLoS ONE, 15(4), e0230609. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0230609
36. Hunt, J. R. (2003). Bioavailability of iron, zinc, and other trace minerals from vegetarian diets. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3), 633S-639S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.633S
37. Huo, R., Du, T., Xu, Y., Xu, W., Chen, X., Sun, K. ve Yu, X. (2015). Effects of Mediterranean-style diet on glycemic control, weight loss and cardiovascular risk factors among type 2 diabetes individuals: a meta-analysis. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 69(11), 1200–1208. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2014.243
38. IPCC. (2019). Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems. International Encyclopedia of Geography: People, the Earth, Environment and Technology. doi:10.1002/9781118786352.wbieg0538
39. Kastorini, C. M., Milionis, H. J., Esposito, K., Giugliano, D., Goudevenos, J. A. ve Panagiotakos, D. B. (2011). The effect of mediterranean diet on metabolic syndrome and its components: A meta-analysis of 50 studies and 534,906 individuals. Journal of the American College of Cardiology, 57(11), 1299–1313. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2010.09.073
40. Khoshnevisan, B., Rafiee, S. ve Mousazadeh, H. (2013). Environmental impact assessment of open field and greenhouse strawberry production. European Journal of Agronomy, 50, 29–37. doi:10.1016/j.eja.2013.05.003
41. Leitzmann, C. (2003). Nutrition ecology: the contribution of vegetarian diets. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 78(3), 657S-659S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.657S
42. Liu, Z., Ciais, P., Deng, Z., Lei, R., Davis, S. J., Feng, S., … Schellnhuber, H. J. (2020). Near-real-time monitoring of global CO2 emissions reveals the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic. Nature Communications, 11(1), 1–12. doi:10.1038/s41467-020-18922-7
43. Macdiarmid, J. I., Kyle, J., Horgan, G. W., Loe, J., Fyfe, C., Johnstone, A. ve McNeill, G. (2012). Sustainable diets for the future: can we contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions by eating a healthy diet? The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 96(3), 632–639. doi:10.3945/ajcn.112.038729
44. Masset, G., Soler, L. G., Vieux, F. ve Darmon, N. (2014). Identifying sustainable foods: The relationship between environmental impact, nutritional quality, and prices of foods representative of the french diet. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 114(6), 862–869. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2014.02.002
45. McEvoy, C. T., Temple, N. ve Woodside, J. V. (2012). Vegetarian diets, low-meat diets and health: A review. Public Health Nutrition, 15(12), 2287–2294. doi:10.1017/S1368980012000936
46. Melina, V., Craig, W. ve Levin, S. (2016). Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian diets. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116(12), 1970–1980. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025
47. Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. (2021). Türkiye 2020 yılı iklim değerlendirmesi. Ankara.
48. Mithril, C., Dragsted, L. O., Meyer, C., Tetens, I., Biltoft-Jensen, A. ve Astrup, A. (2013). Dietary composition and nutrient content of the New Nordic Diet. Public Health Nutrition, 16(5), 777–785. doi:10.1017/S1368980012004521
49. NOAA. (2020). NOAA national centers for environmental information, state of the climate: Global climate report for november 2020. 10 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/202011/supplemental/page-1 adresinden erişildi.
50. Nordic co-operation. (2014). Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2012: Integrating nutrition and physical activity (5. bs.). Copenhagen: Nordisk Ministers. doi:10.6027/Nord2014-002
51. Nordic Co-operation. (2021). Nordic nutrition recommendations. 8 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://www.norden.org/en adresinden erişildi.
52. Parry, M., Rosenzweig, C., Iglesias, A., Fischer, G. ve Livermore, M. (1999). Climate change and world food security: A new assessment. Global Environmental Change içinde (C. 9, ss. S51–S67). Elsevier Ltd. doi:10.1016/S0959-3780(99)00018-7
53. Percy, S., Lubchenco, J., Almeida, F., Armsworth, P., Bennett, A., Ebi, K., … Yohe, G. (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry. http://www.alexandrina.org/CSSP/Event/Material/MEA_businessesdocument.353.aspx.pdf adresinden erişildi.
54. Reynolds, C. J., Macdiarmid, J. I., Whybrow, S., Horgan, G. ve Kyle, J. (2015). Greenhouse gas emissions associated with sustainable diets in relation to climate change and health. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, 74(OCE5), 351. doi:10.1017/s0029665115003985
55. Rigby, D. ve Cáceres, D. (2001). Organic farming and the sustainability of agricultural systems. Agricultural Systems, 68(1), 21–40. doi:10.1016/S0308-521X(00)00060-3
56. Rosato, V., Temple, N. J., La Vecchia, C., Castellan, G., Tavani, A. ve Guercio, V. (2019). Mediterranean diet and cardiovascular disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. European Journal of Nutrition, 58(1), 173–191. doi:10.1007/s00394-017-1582-0
57. Sáez-Almendros, S., Obrador, B., Bach-Faig, A. ve Serra-Majem, L. (2013). Environmental footprints of Mediterranean versus Western dietary patterns: Beyond the health benefits of the Mediterranean diet. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source, 12(1), 118. doi:10.1186/1476-069X-12-118
58. Scoones, I. (2007). Sustainability. Development in Practice, 17(4–5), 589–596. doi:10.1080/09614520701469609
59. Shamsabadi, H., Abedi, M., Ahmad, D. ve Taheri-Rad, A. (2017). Comparison of energy consumption and greenhouse gas emission footprint caused by agricultural products in greenhouses and open field in Iran. Energy Equipment and Systems, 5(2), 157–163. doi:10.22059/ees.2017.25756
60. Spiker, M. L., Hiza, H. A. B., Siddiqi, S. M. ve Neff, R. A. (2017). Wasted Food, Wasted Nutrients: Nutrient Loss from Wasted Food in the United States and Comparison to Gaps in Dietary Intake. Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 117(7), 1031-1040.e22. doi:10.1016/j.jand.2017.03.015
61. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. (2021a). Kyoto Protokolü. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://web.archive.org/web/20150108071134/http://www.csb.gov.tr/projeler/iklim/index.php?Sayfa=sayfa&Tur=webmenu&Id=12427 adresinden erişildi.
62. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. (2021b). Birleşmiş Milletler İklim Değişikliği Çerçeve Sözleşmesi ve Türkiye’nin konumu. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://web.archive.org/web/20150108071143/http://www.csb.gov.tr/projeler/iklim/index.php?Sayfa=sayfa&Tur=webmenu&Id=12442 adresinden erişildi.
63. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı. (2021c). Türkiye’de karbon piyasası. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://web.archive.org/web/20150108070933/http://www.csb.gov.tr/projeler/iklim/index.php?Sayfa=sayfa&Tur=webmenu&Id=12461 adresinden erişildi.
64. T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı. (2021). Paris Anlaşması. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://www.mfa.gov.tr/paris-anlasmasi.tr.mfa adresinden erişildi.
65. T.C. Orman ve Su iİşleri Bakanlığı ve Meteoroloji Genel Müdürlüğü. (2015). Yeni senaryolar ile Türkiye iklim projeksiyonları ve iklim değişikliği. Ankara.
66. T.C. Ticaret Bakanlığı. (2018). Türki̇ye İsraf Raporu. Ankara. www.ticaret.gov.tr adresinden erişildi. TBSA. (2017). Türkiye Beslenme ve Sağlık Araştırması. Ankara. http://library1.nida.ac.th/termpaper6/sd/2554/19755.pdf adresinden erişildi.
67. Tilman, D. ve Clark, M. (2014). Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health. Nature, 515(7528), 518–522. doi:10.1038/nature13959
68. Treu, H., Nordborg, M., Cederberg, C., Heuer, T., Claupein, E., Hoffmann, H. ve Berndes, G. (2017). Carbon footprints and land use of conventional and organic diets in Germany. Journal of Cleaner Production, 161, 127–142. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.05.041
69. UNFCCC. (2008). Kyoto Protocol reference manual: on Accountıng of emıssıons and assıgned amount. doi:10.5213/jkcs.1998.2.2.62
70. UNFCCC. (2015). The Paris Agreement. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://unfccc.int/process-and-meetings/the-paris-agreement/the-paris-agreement adresinden erişildi.
71. UNFCCC. (2020). Climate change. 16 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://unfccc.int/ adresinden erişildi. United Nations. (1992). Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro. http://legal.icsf.net/icsflegal/uploads/pdf/instruments/rio0201.pdf adresinden erişildi.
72. Vermeulen, S. J., Campbell, B. M. ve Ingram, J. S. I. (2012). Climate Change and Food Systems. Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 37(1), 195–222. doi:10.1146/annurev-environ-020411-130608 WCED. (1987). Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development. doi:10.1080/07488008808408783
73. Werner, A., Spiller, A. ve Meyerding, S. G. H. (2020). The yoga of sustainable diets: Exploring consumers mind and spirit. Journal of Cleaner Production, 243, 118473. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118473
74. WHO. (2009). Global Health Risks. http://www.who.int/healthinfo/global_burden_disease/GlobalHealthRisks_report_full.pdf adresinden erişildi.
75. WHO. (2020). Obesity and overweight. who.int. 31 Aralık 2020 tarihinde https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight adresinden erişildi.
76. WHO ve FAO. (2006). Guidelines on food fortification with micronutrients. (L. Allen, B. de Benoist, O. Dary ve R. Hurrell, Ed.). http://www.unscn.org/layout/modules/resources/files/fortification_eng.pdf adresinden erişildi.
77. Willett, W., Rockström, J., Loken, B., Springmann, M., Lang, T., Vermeulen, S., … Murray, C. J. L. (2019). Food in the Anthropocene: the EAT–Lancet Commission on healthy diets from sustainable food systems. The Lancet, 393(10170), 447–492. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(18)31788-4
78. WMO. (2020). Global climate report: State of the climate 2020. https://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/sotc/global/202008 adresinden erişildi.
79. WMO. (2021). Greenhouse gases, World Meteorological Organization. 11 Mayıs 2021 tarihinde https://public.wmo.int/en/our-mandate/focus-areas/environment/greenhouse gases adresinden erişildi.
80. Wood, J. D., Enser, M., Fisher, A. V., Nute, G. R., Sheard, P. R., Richardson, R. I., … Whittington, F. M. (2008). Fat deposition, fatty acid composition and meat quality: A review. Meat Science, 78(4), 343–358. doi:10.1016/j.meatsci.2007.07.019