The Psychological Effects of Upward Comparison: A Study on Guilt and Compensatory Food Choices

Abstract

This study examines how upward social comparison processes are related to women's feelings of guilt and compensatory food choices. The research specifically aims to reveal how norms originating from social media, family, and close circles structure expectations regarding body image and proper nutrition, and how these structures are reflected in daily food decisions. Within this framework, nutritional behaviors are considered not only as individual health preferences but also as meaning-making practices intertwined with societal expectations and cultural body ideals. The study was conducted using a qualitative research design; semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 16 women of varying ages, professions, and education levels who regularly attend gyms in Konya city center. Data were analyzed using thematic analysis based on the principles of grounded theory and axis coding, and recurring patterns of emotions, thoughts, and practices in the participants' narratives were interpreted within a relational framework. The findings show that participants construct upward social comparisons through body image, healthy eating, and ideals of a fit lifestyle. These comparisons generate feelings such as guilt, inadequacy, shame, and self-criticism; These emotions trigger a tendency toward compensatory strategies in daily food choices. Following feelings of guilt, participants either turn to control-oriented choices such as skipping meals and restricting calories, or seek emotional relief through foods like chocolate and pastries; this creates a cyclical structure that perpetuates itself between social comparison, guilt, and food preference. The study reveals that compensatory food choices gain meaning within cultural norms, female roles, and societal body ideals, beyond individual will.

Keywords

• Social comparison
• guilt
• compensatory food choice
• women
• cultural norms

Yukarıya Kıyaslamanın Psikolojik Etkileri: Suçluluk ve Telafi Edici Yiyecek Seçimleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma

Abstract

Bu çalışma, yukarıya yönelik sosyal kıyaslama süreçlerinin kadınların suçluluk duyguları ve telafi edici yiyecek seçimleriyle nasıl ilişkisel olarak örüldüğünü incelemektedir. Araştırma, özellikle sosyal medya, aile ve yakın çevre kaynaklı normların beden görünümü ve doğru beslenme beklentilerini nasıl yapılandırdığını ve bu yapıların gündelik yiyecek kararlarına nasıl yansıdığını ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır. Bu çerçevede beslenme davranışları yalnızca bireysel sağlık tercihleri olarak değil, toplumsal beklentiler ve kültürel beden idealleriyle iç içe geçen anlam pratikleri olarak ele alınmaktadır. Çalışma nitel araştırma deseniyle yürütülmüş; Konya merkezde düzenli olarak spor salonuna devam eden, farklı yaş, meslek ve eğitim düzeylerine sahip 16 kadınla yarı yapılandırılmış derinlemesine görüşmeler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veriler, temellendirilmiş kuram yaklaşımının açık ve eksen kodlama ilkelerine dayalı tematik analizle çözümlenmiş ve katılımcı anlatılarındaki tekrar eden duygu, düşünce ve pratik örüntüleri ilişkisel bir çerçevede yorumlanmıştır. Bulgular, katılımcıların yukarıya sosyal kıyaslamayı beden görünümü, sağlıklı beslenme ve fit yaşam idealleri üzerinden kurduklarını göstermektedir. Bu kıyaslamalar suçluluk, yetersizlik, utanç ve öz-eleştiri gibi duygular üretmekte; bu duygular gündelik yiyecek seçimlerinde telafi edici stratejilere yönelimi tetiklemektedir. Katılımcılar suçluluk sonrası ya öğün atlama ve kalori kısıtlama gibi kontrol odaklı seçimlere ya da çikolata ve hamur işi gibi yiyeceklerle duygusal rahatlamaya yönelmekte; bu da sosyal kıyaslama, suçluluk ve yiyecek tercihi arasında kendini sürdüren döngüsel bir yapı oluşturmaktadır. Çalışma, telafi edici yiyecek seçimlerinin bireysel iradenin ötesinde kültürel normlar, kadınlık rolleri ve toplumsal beden idealleri içinde anlam kazandığını ortaya koymaktadır.

Keywords

• Sosyal kıyaslama
• suçluluk
• telafi edici yiyecek seçimi
• kadınlar
• kültürel normlar

Supporting Institution

Bu çalışma herhangi bir kurum/kuruluş ve kişi tarafından desteklenmemiştir.

Ethical Statement

Araştırma için Siirt Üniversitesi Etik Kurulu’ndan 03.11.2025 tarih ve 1334 sayılı izin alınmıştır.

References

1. Baumeister, R. F. & Heatherton, T. F. (1996). Self-regulation failure: An overview. Psychological Inquiry, 7(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327965pli0701_1
2. Bocci Benucci, S., Fioravanti, G., Silvestro, V., Spinelli, M. C., Brogioni, G., Casalini, A., ... & Rotella, F. (2024). The impact of following instagram influencers on women’s body dissatisfaction and eating disorder symptoms. Nutrients, 16(16), 2730. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16162730
3. Boyce, J. A., & Kuijer, R. G. (2014). Focusing on media body ideal images triggers food intake among restrained eaters: a test of restraint theory and the elaboration likelihood model. Eating Behaviors, 15(2), 262-270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2014.03.003
4. Chirkov, V. (2019). An introduction to the theory of sociocultural models. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 23(2), 143–162. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12381
5. Cihan, B., Bozo, Ö., Schaefer, L. M., & Thompson, J. K. (2016). Psychometric properties of the sociocultural attitudes towards appearance Questionnaire-4-Revised (SATAQ-4R) in turkish women. Eating Behaviors, 21, 168-171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.03.003
6. Collins, R. L. (1996). For better or worse: The impact of upward social comparison on self-evaluations. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.119.1.51
7. Corbin, J. & Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Sage Publications. ISBN: 978-1-4129-9746-1
8. Corning, A. F., Gondoli, D. M., Bucchianeri, M. M., & Salafia, E. H. B. (2010). Preventing the development of body issues in adolescent girls through intervention with their mothers. Body Image, 7(4), 289-295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2010.08.001

9. Cowley, E. S., & Schneider, J. (2025). ‘I sometimes feel like I can’t win!’: An exploratory mixed-methods study of women’s body image and experiences of exercising in gym settings. PLoS One, 20(1), e0316756. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0316756
10. De Young, K. P., Zander, M., Towne, T., Della Longa, N. M., Hovrud, L., & Murtha-Berg, E. (2019). The relation of dietary restraint and affect with food choice and the experience of guilt after eating. Current Psychology, 38(1), 92-99. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-017-9592-x
11. Dittmar, H. (2009). How do “body perfect” ideals in the media have a negative impact on body image and behaviors? Factors and processes related to self and identity. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 28(1), 1-8. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.2009.28.1.1
12. Dondzilo, L., Rodgers, R. F. & Dietel, F. A. (2024). Association between engagement with appearance and eating related TikTok content and eating disorder symptoms via recommended content and appearance comparisons. International Journal of Eating Disorders, 57(2), 458–462. https://doi-org.proxy-ub.rug.nl/10.1002/eat.24117
13. Dumas, C. R., Malo, R., Rommel, D. & Congard, A. (2026). An ‘orthorexic society’: The role of psychological flexibility in responding to healthy eating pressures. New Ideas in Psychology, 80, 101207. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newideapsych.2025.101207
14. Festinger, L. (1954). A Theory of social comparison processes. Human Relations, 7(2), 117–140. https://doi.org/10.1177/001872675400700202
15. Fitzsimmons-Craft, E. E., Bardone-Cone, A. M., Wonderlich, S. A., Crosby, R. D., Engel, S. G., & Bulik, C. M. (2015). The relationships among social comparisons, body surveillance, and body dissatisfaction in the natural environment. Behavior therapy, 46(2), 257-271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2014.09.006
16. Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. A. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women's lived experiences and mental health risks. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21(2), 173-206. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1997.tb00108.x
17. Glaser, B. & Strauss, A. (2017). Discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203793206
18. Heatherton, T. F., & Polivy, J. (1991). Development and validation of a scale for measuring state self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6), 895-910.
19. Hillard, E. E., Gondoli, D. M., Corning, A. F., & Morrissey, R. A. (2016). In it together: Mother talk of weight concerns moderates negative outcomes of encouragement to lose weight on daughter body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. Body Image, 16, 21-27. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.09.004
20. Holbrook, M. B., & Gardner, M. P. (1993). An approach to investigating the emotional determinants of consumption durations: why do people consume what they consume for as long as they consume it?. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 2(2), 123-142. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1057-7408(08)80021-6
21. Landt, M. C. T. S., Van Furth, E. F., Van Beijsterveldt, C. E. M., Bartels, M., Willemsen, G., De Geus, E. J. C., Ligthart, L. & Boomsma, D. I. (2017). Prevalence of dieting and fear of weight gain across ages: a community sample from adolescents to the elderly. International Journal of Public Health, 62(8), 911–919. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-017-0948-7
22. Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Progress on a cognitive-motivational-relational theory of emotion. American Psychologist, 46(8), 819. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.46.8.819
23. Leahey, T. M., Crowther, J. H., & Mickelson, K. D. (2007). The frequency, nature, and effects of naturally occurring appearance-focused social comparisons. Behavior Therapy, 38(2), 132-143. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2006.06.004
24. Li, Y. (2019). Upward social comparison and depression in social network settings: The roles of envy and self-efficacy. Internet Research, 29(1), 46-59. https://:doi.org/10.1108/IntR-09-2017-0358
25. Macht, M. (2008). How emotions affect eating: A five-way model. Appetite, 50(1), 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2007.07.002
26. McKay, A., Moore, S. A. & Kubik, W. (2018). Western beauty pressures and their impact on young university women. International Journal of Gender and Women’s Studies, 6(2). https://doi.org/10.15640/ijgws.v6n2a1
27. McKinley, N. M., & Hyde, J. S. (1996). The objectified body consciousness scale: Development and validation. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 20(2), 181-215. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1996.tb00467.x
28. Muller, D. & Fayant, M. P. (2010). On being exposed to superior others: Consequences of self‐threatening upward social comparisons. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 4(8), 621-634. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-9004.2010.00279.x
29. Murphy, R., Straebler, S., Cooper, Z., & Fairburn, C. G. (2010). Cognitive behavioral therapy for eating disorders. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 33(3), 611-627. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2010.04.004
30. Onu, D., Kessler, T. & Smith, J. R. (2016). Admiration: A conceptual review. Emotion Review, 8(3), 218–230. https://doi.org/10.1177/1754073915610438
31. Ozel, B., Alıcı, Y. H., Kocak, O. M., & Ceran, S. (2024). The influence of gender roles on eating attitudes: A study among female college students abstracts. European Psychiatry, 67(S1), 801-802. https://doi.org/10.1192/j.eurpsy.2024.1670
32. Prichard, I., & Tiggemann, M. (2008). Relations among exercise type, self-objectification, and body image in the fitness centre environment: The role of reasons for exercise. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(6), 855-866. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.10.005
33. Polivy, J., & Herman, C. P. (1985). Dieting and binging: A causal analysis. American Psychologist, 40(2), 193. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066x.40.2.193
34. Polivy, J., Heatherton, T. F., & Herman, C. P. (1988). Self-esteem, restraint, and eating behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 97(3), 354–356. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-843X.97.3.354
35. Raggatt, M., Wright, C. J., Carrotte, E., Jenkinson, R., Mulgrew, K., Prichard, I., & Lim, M. S. (2018). ‘I aspire to look and feel healthy like the posts convey’: Engagement with fitness inspiration on social media and perceptions of its influence on health and wellbeing. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 1002. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-018-5930-7
36. Rancourt, D., Leahey, T. M., LaRose, J. G. & Crowther, J. H. (2014). Effects of weight‐focused social comparisons on diet and activity outcomes in overweight and obese young women. Obesity, 23(1), 85–89. https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20953
37. Riaz, S., Nazeer, R. & Muzaffar, A. (2024). Social comparison and disordered eating behavior in university students: Mediating role of body image dissatisfaction. Journal of Professional & Applied Psychology, 5(2), 295-303. https://doi.org/10.52053/jpap.v5i2.283
38. Rozin, P., Fischler, C., Imada, S., Sarubin, A., & Wrzesniewski, A. (1999). Attitudes to food and the role of food in life in the USA, Japan, Flemish Belgium and France: Possible implications for the diet–health debate. Appetite, 33(2), 163-180. https://doi.org/10.1006/appe.1999.0244
39. Ruddock, H. K. & Hardman, C. A. (2018). Guilty pleasures: The effect of perceived overeating on food addiction attributions and snack choice. Appetite, 121, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.10.032
40. Schindler, I., Zink, V., Windrich, J. & Menninghaus, W. (2013). Admiration and adoration: Their different ways of showing and shaping who we are. Cognition & Emotion, 27(1), 85–118. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2012.698253
41. Sproesser, G., Schupp, H. T., & Renner, B. (2014). The bright side of stress-induced eating: eating more when stressed but less when pleased. Psychological Science, 25(1), 58-65. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797613494849 Stice, E. (2002). Risk and maintenance factors for eating pathology: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 128(5), 825. https://doi.org/10.1037//0033-2909.128.5.825
42. Swami, V., Özgen, L., Gökçen, E., & Petrides, K. V. (2015). Body image among female university students in Turkey: concurrent translation and validation of three body image measures. International Journal of Culture and Mental Health, 8(2), 176-191. https://doi.org/10.1080/17542863.2014.917117
43. Tiggemann, M. (2012). Sociocultural perspectives on body image. In T. F. Cash (Ed.), Encyclopedia of body image and human appearance., Vol. 2. (pp. 758–765). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-384925-0.00120-6
44. Tiggemann, M., & Slater, A. (2014). NetTweens: The internet and body image concerns in preteenage girls. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 34(5), 606-620. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431613501083
45. Tiggemann, M., & Zaccardo, M. (2015). ‘Exercise to be fit, not skinny’: The effect of fitspiration imagery on women's body image. Body Image, 15, 61-67. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bodyim.2015.06.003
46. Van de Ven, N. (2017). Envy and admiration: Emotion and motivation following upward social comparison. Cognition and Emotion, 31(1), 193-200. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2015.1087972
47. Van Strien, T., Herman, C. P., & Verheijden, M. W. (2009). Eating style, overeating, and overweight in a representative Dutch sample. Does external eating play a role?. Appetite, 52(2), 380-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.11.010 Wansink, B., Just, D. R., & Payne, C. R. (2009). Mindless eating and healthy heuristics for the irrational. American Economic Review, 99(2), 165-169. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.99.2.165
48. Wills, T. A. (1981). Downward comparison principles in social psychology. Psychological Bulletin, 90(2), 245. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0033-2909.90.2.245
49. Wong, M. & Qian, M. (2016). The role of shame in emotional eating. Eating Behaviors, 23, 41-47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2016.07.004
50. Yu, H., Chambers IV, E. & Koppel, K. (2021). Exploration of the food‐related guilt concept. Journal of Sensory Studies, 36(1), e12622. https://doi.org/10.1111/joss.12622