Günümüzde Kuzey ve Kuzey Batı Çin’de Konuşulan Çin – Tibet Dilleri Dışındaki Dillerin Durumu II Altay Dilleri 2 – Tunguzca

Year 2020, Issue: 9, 244 - 314, 30.06.2020

Gökçe Yükselen Peler

https://doi.org/10.38060/kare.740597

Abstract

Günümüzde, Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde, resmen azınlık milliyeti olarak tanınmış beş tane Tunguz topluluğu mevcuttur. Bunlar; Evenk, Oroçen, Heje, Mançu ve Sibe milliyetleridir. Ancak resmen tanınmış olan bu Tunguz milliyetlerinin dillik temellerden yoksun olduğu görülmektedir. Evenk adı altında, Solon Evenk Tunguzları, Hamnigan Evenk Tunguzları ve Mançurya Rengeyiği Evenk Tunguzları tek bir milliyet olarak sınıflandırılmaktadırlar. Oysa Solon Evenk Tunguzlarının konuştukları lehçe, diğer ikisinin konuştukları lehçelerden tamamen başka bir Tunguz lehçesidir. Buna mukabil, konuştukları lehçe, Hamnigan ve Mançurya Rengeyiği Evenek Tunguzlarının konuştukları lehçeler ile oldukça benzeşen Oroçen Tunguzları, ayrı bir milliyet olarak tanınmaktadır. Heje adı altında tanınan Tunguz milliyeti de en az Evenk kimliği kadar, dillik bakımdan sorunludur. Bu isim altında, Rusya Federasyonu’nda konuşulan iki ayrı Tunguz lehçesinin Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’ndeki uzantılarını konuşan Nanay ve Kilen Tunguzları, tek milliyet olarak tasnif edilmiştir. Sibe Tunguzları da aslında Mançu Tunguzlarının bir kabilesi olmaları ve Mançu Tunguzcasının bir ağzını konuşmalarına rağmen, resmen Sibe ve Mançu adı altında iki ayrı milliyet ve dil tanınmaktadır. Bu beş Tunguz milliyeti tarafından konuşulan dokuz ayrı Tunguz lehçesinin İç Moğolistan ve Mançurya’da yoğunlaştığı görülmektedir. Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde Tunguz lehçelerinin birden fazla lehçe ile temsil edildiği bir diğer coğrafya, Doğu Türkistan’dır. Bu dokuz lehçenin tamamı, farklı oranlarda yok olma tehlikesi ile karşı karşıyadır. Hatta bazı lehçeler ya tamamen ya da kısmen yok olmanın eşiğine gelmişlerdir. Ancak dünya yüzünde gelecekte yaşama ihtimali olan iki Tunguz lehçesinin her ikisi de yine Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti’nde konuşulmaktadır. Bunların biri İç Moğolistan’ın Hülün Buir aymağında konuşulan Solon Evenk Tunguzcası, diğeri ise Doğu Türkistan’ İli Muhtar Kazak İli’nde konuşulan Sibe Mançu Tunguzcasıdır.

Keywords

Çin Halk Cumhuriyeti, Tunguzca, Tunguz Lehçeleri, Çince, Moğolca

he Present Situation of Non-Sino-Tibetan Languages Spoken in Northern and North-Western China II Altaic Languages 2 – Tungusic

Abstract

There are five officially recognized Tungusic minority nationalities in contemporary China. These are the Evenks, the Orochens, the Heje, the Manchu and the Xibe. However these officially recognized Tungusic nationalities do not overlap with the linguistic realities of Tungusic. The Solons, the Khamnigans and the Manchurian Reindeer Tungus are classified under the Evenk nationality. However the Tungusic variety spoken by the Solons is a completely different variety than those of the latter two. On the other hand, the Orochens, who speak a Tungusic variety very close to those of the Hamnigan and the Manchurian Reindeer Tungus, are classified as a separate nationality. Linguistically the Heje nationality is at the least as problematic as the Evenk. The Nanai and the Kilen, who speak the offsets of two separate varieties originally spoken in the Russian Federation, are classified under the Heje nationality. On the other hand, the Xibe, who originally are a Manchu tribe and speak a Manchu variety, are classified as a separate nationality than the Manchu. At least nine Tungusic varieties spoken by these five nationalities are concentrated in Inner Mongolia and Manchuria. Another region where Tungusic is represented with more than one variety, is Eastern Turkestan. All nine of these varieties are facing the threat of extinction, though various levels. As a matter of fact some of these varieties are completely or regionally moribund. Nevertheless both of the two Tungusic varieties, which are thought to have the chance of survival in the future are spoken in the People’s Republic of China. One of these is Solon spoken in the Hulun Buir League of Inner Mongolia, the other being Sibe, which is spoken in the Ili Kazakh Autonomous Prefecture.

Keywords

People`s Republic of China, Tungusic, Tungusic Varieties, Chinese, Mongolian

References

• Abdurrazak Peler, Gökçe Yükselen. 2012. “Günümüzde Kuzey ve Kuzey Batı Çin’de Konuşulan Çin – Tibet Dilleri Dışındaki Dillilerin Durumu I: Altay Dilleri – Moğolca.” Turkish Studies For The Languages, Literatures and History of Turkish or Turkic 7 (4): 3301-3335.
• Alonso de la Fuente, José Andrés. 2011. “Venjukov’s [1858] 1862/1868 Nanai Materials.” Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 93: 11-35.
• Atknine, Victor. 1997. “The Evenki Language from the Yenisei to Sakhalin.” Northern Minority Languages: Problems of Survival. Senri Ethnological Studies 44: 109-121.
• Baek, Sangyub. 2016. “Tungusic from the Perspective of Areal Linguistics: Focusing on the Bikin Dialect of Udihe.” Doktora Tezi, Hokkaido Üniversitesi.
• Benzing, Johannes. 1955. “Die tungusischen Sprachen, Versuch einer vergleichenden Grammatik.” Abhandlungen der geistes- und sozialwissenschaftlichen Klasse, Akademie der Wissenschaft und der Literatur Mainz 11: 949-1099.
• Bradley, David. 2007. “East and Southeast Asia.” Encyclopedia of the World’s Endangered Languages içinde, haz. Christopher Moseley, 349-422. Londra ve New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
• Bulatova, N. Ya. 1987. Govorı Evenkov Amurskoy Oblastı. Leningrad: Nauka.
• Comrie, Bernard. 1981. The Languages of the Soviet Union. Cambridege – Londra – New York – New Rochelle – Melbourne – Sydney: Cambridge University Press
• Crossley, Pamela Kyle. 1990. Orphan Warriors: Three Manchu Generations and the End of the Çing World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Crossley, Pamela Kyle ve Evelyn S. Rawski. 1993. “A Profile of The Manchu Language in Ch’ing History.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 53/1: 63-102.
• Çernyakov, Z. E. 1935. Karta rasprostraneniya yazıkov naradov Severa SSSR. Moskova ve Leningrad: Gosudartvennoe Uçebno – Pedagogiçeskoe İzdatel’stvo.
• Demir, Duygu Özge. 2012. “Nanylar ve Nanay Dili Üzerine.” Tehlikedeki Diller Dergisi 1/1: 135-144.
• Doerfer, Gerhard. 1978. “Classification Problems of Tungus.” Tungusica, Band 1: Beiträge zur nordasiatischen Kulturgeschichte içinde, haz. G. Doerfer ve M. Weiers, 1-26. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Dongho, Ko ve Yurn Gyudong. 2011. A Description of Najkhin Nanai. Seul: Seoul National University Press.
• Dumont, Aurore. 2017. “Declining Evenki ‘Identities’: Playing with Loyaltiy in Modern and Contemporary China.” History and Anthropology 28/4: 515-530.
• Dwyer, Arienne M. 1998. “The Textures of Tongues: Languages and Power in China.” Nationalism and Ethnoregional Identities in China içinde, haz. William Safran, 68-85. Londra: Frank Cass Publishers.
• Dwyer, Arienne. 2005. “The Minorities of China.” The Encyclopedia of the World’s Minorities içinde, haz. Carl Skutsch, 286-294. New York: Routledge.
• Fraser, Richard. 2010. “Forced Relocation amongst the Reindeer-Evenki of Inner Mongolia.” Inner Asia 12: 317-345.
• Georg, Stefan. 2004. “Unreclassifying Tungusic.” Proceedings of the First International Conference on Manchu-Tungus Studies. 2: Trends in Tungusic and Siberian Linguistics (Tunguso – Sibirica 9) içinde, haz. C. Naeher, 45-57. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Girfanova, Albina. 2018. “Vladimir Arsenyev. Explorer and Researcher of the Tungus-Manchu Peoples and Their Languages.” Sibirica 17/1: 23-35.
• Gorelova, Liliya M. 2002. Manchu Grammar. Leiden, Boston Ve Köln: Brill.
• Grenoble, Lenore A. ve Lindsay J. Whaley 1999. “Language Policy and the Loss of Tungusic Languages.” Language and Communication 19: 373-386.
• Grenoble, Lenore ve Lindsay Y. Whaley. 2003. “The Case for Dialect Continua in Tungusic Plural Morphology.” Current Trends in Caucasian, East European and Inner Asian Linguistics. Papers in Honour of Howard I. Aronson içinde, haz. Dee Ann Holisky ve Kevin Tuite, 97-122. Amsterdam ve Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
• Guo, Rongxing, Uradyn E. Bulag, Michael A. Crang, Thomas Heberer, Eui-Gak Hwang, James A. Millward, Morris Rossabi, Gerard A. Postiglione, Chih-yu Shih, Nicholas Tapp, Luc Changlei haz. 2015. Multicultural China. A Statistical Yearbook (2014). Berlin ve Heidelberg: Springer Verlag.
• Haak, Esther. 2016. “The Viability of Evenki and the Influence of Language Policy in the USSR and PRC.” Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Leyden Üniversitesi.
• Haas, Paula. 2006. “Zur Geschichte des zweisprachigen Schulunterrichts bei den Sibe in Xinjiang.” Central Asiatic Journal 50/1: 35-56.
• Heissig, Walther. 2002. “Zum Kult der Nai Nai Grossmutter bei den Ostmongolen.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 55/1-3: 161-170.
• Heyne, F. Georg. 1999. “The Social Significance of the Shaman amomg the Chinese Reindeer-Evenki.” Asian Folklore Studies 58: 377-395.
• Heyne, F. Georg. 2007. “Notes on Blood Revenge among the Reindeer Evenki of Manchuria (Northeast China).” Asian Folklore Studies 66 /1-2: 165-178.
• Hosie, Alexander. 1904. Manchuria: Its People, Resources And Recent History. Londra: Methuen & CO.
• Hölzl, Andreas. 2014. “Zikmundova, Veronika. 2013. Spoekn Sibe – Morphology of the inflected parts of speech. Karolinum Press: Prague. 231 pp. (ISBN 978-80-246-2013-6).“ Studies in Language 38/1: 209-217.
• Hölzl, Andreas. 2018. “Udi, Udihe, and the Language(s) of the Kyakala.” International Journal of Diacchronic Linguistics and Lİnguistic Reconstruction 15: 111-146.
• Hiu, Lie. 1978. “Über die Benennung der Udihe.” Tungusica. Bd. 1. Beiträge zur Nordasiatischen Kulturgeschichte içinde, haz. Gerhard Doerfer ve Michael Weiers, 179-201. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
• Ikegami, J. 1974. “Versuch einer Klassifikation der tungusichen Sprachen.” Sprache, Geschichte und Kultur der altaischen Völker: Protokolband der XII. Tagung der Permanent International Asiatic Conference 1969 in Berlin içinde, haz. G. Hazai ve Peter Zieme, 271-273. Berlin: Akademie Verlag.
• Ivanov, S. V., M. G. Levin ve A. V. Smolyak. 1956. “The Nanays.” The Peoples of Siberia içinde, haz. M. G. Levin ve L. P. Potapov, 691-720. Chicago ve Londra: The University of Chicago Press.
• Janhunen, Juha. 1991. Material on Manchurian Khamnigan Evenki. Helsinki: Finno-Ugrian Society.
• Janhunen, Juha. 1996. “Mongolic Languages as Idioms of Intercultural Communication in Northern Manchuria.” Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas içinde, haz. Stephen Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler ve T. Darrell Tryon, 827-834. New York ve Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Janhunen, Juha. 1997. “The Languages of Manchuria in Todays China.” Northern Minority Languages: Problems of Survival. Senri Ethnological Studies, 44: 123-146.
• Janhunen, Juha. 2005. Khamnigan Mongol. Münih: Lincom Europa.
• Janhunen, Juha. 2005. “Tungusic: An Endangered Language Family in Northeast Asia.” International Journal of Sociology of Language, 173: 37-54.
• Janhunen, Juha. 2011. “Khamnigan Mongol.” The Mongolic Languages içinde, haz. Juha Janhunen 83-101. Londra ve New York: Routledge.
• Kara, György, haz. 1982. Mandjurica I. Specimens of the Solon and the Dagur Languages by A. O. Ivanovskij. Budapeşte: Akadémiai Kiadó.
• Kara, György. 2006 “Solon Ewenki in Mongolian Script.” Tumen Jalafun Jecen Aku: Manchu Studies in Honour of Giovanni Stary içinde, haz. Alessandra Pozzi, Juha Antero Janhunen ve Michael Weiers, 133-148. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz Verlag.
• Khabtagaeva, Bayrama, 2010. “Mongolic Elements in Barguzin Evenki.” Acta Oriemtalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 63/1: 9-25.
• Khabtagaeva, Bayrama. 2012. “The Dagur Elements in Solon Evenk.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae, 63/3: 335-346.
• Kolås, Åshild. 2011. “Reclaiming the Forest: Ewenki Reindeer Herding as Exception.” Human Organization 70/4: 397-404.
• Koo, John H., Liu Jingxian, Zhao Aping, Wu Baozhu ve Kwon Oh-Sun. 1994. “On Plural Formation in Manchu.” Central Asiatic Journal 38/2: 179-187.
• Krauss, Michael. 1997. “The Indigenous Languages of the North: A Report on Their Present State.” Northern Minority Languages: Problems of Survival. Senri Ethnological Studies, 44: 1-34.
• Lee-Smith, Mei W. 1996. “An Example of Multilingualism in The Great Northwest of China.” Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pacific, Asia and the Americas içinde, haz. Stephen Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler ve T. Darrell Tryon, 901-903. New York ve Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Li, Fengxiang ve Lindsay J. Whaley. 2009. “Loandwords in Oroqen, a Tungusic Language of China.” Loanwords in the World’s Languages. A Comparative Handbook içinde, haz. Martin Haspelmath ve Uri Tadmor, 525-544. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter.
• Ligeti, Louis. 1959. “Les Mots Solons dans un Ouvrage Chinois des Ts’ing.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 9: 231-272.
• Lin, Hang. 2017. “The Last Hunting Tribe in China: The Ewenki Reindeer Herders of Aoluguya.” Localities 7: 239-246.
• Lindgren, Ethel John. 1930. “North-Western Manchuria and the Reindeer-Tungus”, The Geographical Journal 75/6: 518-534.
• Lindgren, Ethel John. 1938. “An Example of Culture Contact Wiyhout Conflict: Reindeer Tungus and Cossacks of Northwestern Manchuria.” American Anthropologist, New Series 40: 605-621.
• Lopatin, Ivan A. 1958. “The Tungus Languages.” Anthropos 53/3-4: 427-440.
• Mair, Victor H. 2004. “Foreword.”, Language Policy in the Poeple’s Rebublic of China. Theory and Practice Since 1949 içinde, haz. Minglang Zhou ve Hongkai Sun, xvii-xviii. New York, Boston, Dordrecht, Londra ve Moskova: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
• Menges, Karl H. 1968. “Die tungusichen Sprachen.” Handbuch der Orientalistik 5. Altaistik 3. Tungusologie, içinde, haz. B. Spuler, 21-256. Leiden ve Köln: E. J. Brill.
• Miller, Roy Andrew. 1994. “The Original Geographic Distribution of the Tungus Languages.” The Non-Slavic Languages of the USSR: Papers from the Fourth Conference içinde, haz. Howard I. Aronson, 272-299. Columbus: Slavica Publishers.
• Nikolaeva, Irina ve Maria Tolskaya. 2001. A Grammar of Udihe. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Ning, Jin. 1989. A Catalogue of Sibe-Manchu Publications (1954-1989), haz. G. Stary. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Noll, Richard ve Kun Shi. 2009. “The Last Shaman of the Oroqen People of Northeast China.” Shaman: Journal of the International Society for Shamanistic Research 17/1-2: 117-140.
• Norman, J. A. 1974. “A Sketch of Sibe Morphology.” Central Asiatic Journal 18/3: 159-73.
• Norman, Jerry. 2003. “Manchus and Their Language.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 123/3: 483-491.
• Pang, Tatjana A. 1994. “An Introduction to the Lİterature of the Sibe-People.” Central Asiatic Journal 38/2: 188-213.
• Patkanov, S. 1906. Opıt’ Geografii i Statistiki Tungusskih’ Plemen’ Sibiri. St. Petersburg: Zapiski Imperatorskogo Russkogo Geografiçeskogo Obşçestva.
• Peler, Gökçe Yükselen. 2017. “Üç Ülkeye Bölünmüş Çok Dilli Bir Halk: Hamniganlar ve Dil Durumları.” Avrasya Uluslararası Araştırmalar Dergisi 5/10: 155-170.
• Peler, Gökçe Yükselen. 2019. “Tarih Boyunca Altay Halkları Arasındaki Geçişkenlik.” Uluslararası İdil – Ural ve Türkistan Araştırmaları Dergisi 1/1: 83-94.
• Peler, Gökçe Yükselen. 2020. “Günümüzde Moğol – Tunguz Ortakyaşarlığı.” Zeitschrift für die Welt der Türken 12/1: 37-54.
• Pionka, N. 2001. “History and Culture of the Bikin Udege.” ANSPIRA Bulletin 5B: 6-7.
• Ramsey, S. Robert. 1987. The Languages of China. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
• Razumovskaya, Veronica A. ve Yaroslav V. Sokolovsky. 2012. “Modern Tendencies of Language Policy and Language Planning in Russia and China: Comparative Study.” Journal of Siberian Federal University. Humanities & Social Sciences 7/5: 927-934.
• Salminen, Tapani. 2007. “Europe and North Asia.” Encyclopedia of the World’s Endangered Languages içinde, haz. Christopher Moseley, 211-280. Londra ve New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
• Schein, Louisa, “Minorities, Homelands and Methods.” China Inside Out. Contemporary Chinese Nationalism and Transnationalism içinde, haz., Pál, Nyiri ve Joana Breidenbach, 99-140. Budapeşte ve New York: Central European University Press.
• Schmidt, Peter. 1928. “The language of the Oroches.” Acta Universitatis Latviensis 17: 17–62.
• Schwarz, Henry G. 1984. The Minorities of Northern China. A Survey. Washington: Western Washington University.
• Shan, Patrick Fuliang. 2006. “Ethnicity, Nationalism and Race Relations: The Chinese Treatment of the Solon Tribes in Heilongjiang Frontier Society, 1900-1931.” Asian Ethnicity 7/2: 183-193.
• Shimunek, Andrew 2016. “Yöröö Khamnigan: A Possibly Recently Extinct Tungusic Language of Northern Mongolia.” Altai Hakpo 26: 13-28.
• Smith, Troy D. 2013. “Manchu”, Native Peoples of the World. An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures, and Contemporary Issues içinde, haz. Steven Danver, 218-219. Londra ve New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
• Stary, Giovanni. 1988. Epengesänge der Sibe-Mandschurien. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
• Stary, Giovanni. 1994. “Disappearance and Survival of a Dominant Nation: the Manchu.” The East and the Meaning of History, 1992 Rome (Studi Orientali –Roma- 13) içinde, 469-479. Roma: Bardi.
• Sternberg, L. 1933. Gilyaki, Oroçi, Goldı, Negidal’tsı i Aynı. Habarovsk: Dalgiz.
• Stuart, Kevin ve Li Xuewei. 1994. “Tales From China’s Forest Hunters: Oroqen Folktales.” Sino-Platonic Papers 61: i-59.
• Sun, Xiaofei. 2016. “Parallel Development of Oroqen Folk Music Inheritence and Characteristic Specialty Construction in Colleges and Universities.” Proceedings of the 2016 International Conference on Arts, Design and Contemporary Education içinde, haz. Eric McAnally, Michael Hylind, Tatiana Volodina, Yong Zhang ve Irina Solovjeva, 1440-1442. Paris: Atlantis Press.
• Svantesson, Jan-Olof. 1991. “Tradition and Reform in China’s Minority Languages.” International Journal of Applied Linguistics 1/1: 70-88.
• Şmidt, P. 1915. “Etnografiya Dal’nyago Vostoka.” Vivat Academia 94 (5): 30-31.
• Teziç, Mustafa Can. 2019. “Aşağı Amur Bölgesindeki Soy Gruplarında Etnogenez Süreçler.” Modern Türklük Araştırmaları Dergisi 16/3: 495-512.
• Tsintsius, V. I. 1949. Sravnitel’naya fonetika tunguso-man’çjurskih yazıkov. Leningrad: Uçpedgiz.
• Tsumagari, Toshiro. 1992. “A Basic Vocabulary of Khamnigan and Oluguya Ewenki in Northern Inner Mongolia.” Bulletin of the Institute for the Study of North Eurasian Cultures Hokkaido University 21: 83-103.
• Tsumagari, Toshiro. 1997. “Linguistic Diversity and National Borders of Tungusic.” Northern Minority Languages: Problems of Survival. Senri Ethnological Studies 44: 175-185.
• Tsumagari, Toshiro. 2003. “Dagur.” The Mongolic Languages içinde, haz. Juha Janunen, 129-153. Londra ve New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
• Tsumagari, Toshiro. 2009. “A Sketch of Solon Grammar.” Journal of the Center for Northern Humanities 2: 1-21.
• Tsumagari, Toshiro, Megumi Kurebito ve Fubito Endo. (2007). “Siberia: Tungusic and Palaeosiberian.” The Vanishing Languages of the Pacific Rim içinde, haz. Osahito Miyaoka, Osamu Sakiyama ve Michael E. Krauss, 387-405. Oxford ve New York: Oxford Uniiversity Press.
• U-Köhalmi, Käthe. 1959. “Der mongolisch-kamniganische Dialekte von Dadal Sum und die Frage der mongolisierung der Tungusen in den Nordmongolei und Transbajkalien.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 9: 163-204.
• Vasilevich, G. M. ve A. V. Smolyak. 1964. “The Evenks.” The Peoples of Siberia içinde, haz. M. G. Levin ve L. P. Potapov, 620-654. Chicago ve Londra: The University of Chicago Press.
• von Şrenk, Leopold. 1883. Ob’ İnorodtsah’ Amurskogo Kraya 1. St. Petersburg: Prodaetcya ı Kommissyonerov’ İmperatorsskoy Akademiy Nauk’.
• Vovin, A. 1993. “Towards a New Classification of Tunngusic Languages.” Eurasian Studies Yearbook 65: 99-113.
• Vovin, A. 2009. “Tungusic Languages.” Concise Encyclopedia of Languages of the World içinde, haz. Keith Brown ve Sarah Ogilvie, 1103-1105. Oxford: Elsevier Ltd.
• Wen, Hui-Qi. 2017. “National Belonging Needs and Natural Historical Cultural Analysis of Chinese Manchu.” Proceedings of the 3rd Annual International Conference on Management, Economics and Social Development (ICMESD 17) içinde, haz. Xu Chen, 157-162. Paris: Atlantis Press.
• Whaley, Lindsay J. ve Fengxiang Li. 2000. “Oroqen Dialects.” Central Asiatic Journal 4/1: 105-130.
• Whaley, Lindsay J., A. Lenore Grenoble ve Fengxiang Li. 1999. “Revisiting Tungusic Classification from the Bottom up: A Comparison of Evenki and Oroqen.” Language 75/2: 286-321.
• Wurm, Stephen A. 1996. “Indigenous Lingue Franche and Bilingualism in Siberia (beginning of the 20th century)”, Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pasific, Asia and the Americas içinde, haz. Stephen Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler ve Darell T. Tryon, 975-978. Berlin ve New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Wurm, Stephen A. 1996. “North China: Intercultural Communication Involving Indigenous Languages other than Chinese.” Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in the Pasific, Asia and the Americas içinde, haz. Stephen Wurm, Peter Mühlhäusler ve Darell T. Tryon, 815-825. Berlin ve New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Xi, Zhang. 1996. “Vowel Sustems of Languages of the Manchu-Tungus Languages of China.” Doktora Tezi, Toronto Üniversitesi.
• Xie, Yuanyuan. 2015. Ecological Migrants: The Relocation of China's Ewenki Reindeer Herders. New York ve Oxford: Berghahn Books.
• Yu, Wonsoo. 2011. A Study of the Mongol Khamnigan Spoken in Northeastern Mongolia. Seul: Seoul National University Press.
• Yuguang, Fu, Guo Shuyun ve Juha Janhunen. 1999. “The Kyakala in China: History and Present Situation”. Journal de la Société Finno-Ougrienne 88: 248–252.
• Zhang, Paiyu. 2013. “The Kilen Language of Manchuria: Grammar of Amoribund Tungusic Language.” Doktora Tezi, Hong Kong Üniversitesi.
• Zhou, Minglang 2003. Multilingualism in China. Berlin ve New York: Mouton de Gruyter.
• Zhu, Zhenhua, Homgyang Zhang, Jianjun Zhao, Xiaoyi Guo, Zengxiang Zhang, Yanling Ding ve Tao Xiong. 2018. “Using Toponyms to Analyze the Endangered Mancu Language in Northeast China.” Sustainability 10/2: 1-17.
• Zikmundova, Veronika. 2013. Spoken Sibe – Morphology of the Inflected Parts of Speech. Prag: Karolinum Press.
• http://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/8570. (Erişim tarihi: 16.04.2020).
• Gruntov, I. A. “Hamniganskiy Yazık.” http://altaica.ru/LIBRARY/khamniganen.pdf. (Erişim tarihi: 23.04.2020).
• Hui, Feng 2007. “The Changing Language Ideology and Linguistic Market in the Globalization of China.” CALIGRAMA, 3/2: 1-13. http://www.revistas.usp.br/caligrama/article/view/65466/68084. (Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2020).
• Xie, Yuanyuan. 2018. “From Hunters to Herders. Reflections on the ‘Ecological Migration’ of the Chinese Evenki Reindeer Herders.” Études mongoles et sibériennes, centrasiatiques et tibétaines 49. https://journals.openedition.org/emscat/3414. (Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2020).
• Xinhua, “Ethnic Group Revives Near-Extinc Language”, China Daily (29.4.2011). http://usa.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2011-04/29/content_12424517.htm. (Erişim tarihi: 20.04.2020).
• Zheng, Xiaowie (01.05.2020) “Sinicization vs. Manchuness: The Success of Manchu Rule”, UCSD Modern Chinese History. https://ucsdmodernchinesehistory.wordpress.com/2010/05/01/1039/. (Erişim Tarihi: 08.05.2020).