Antropojen Kaynaklı Kentsel Isı Adası Etkisini Azaltmada Mekânsal Stratejiler; Bolu Kent Merkezi Örneği

Öz

Dünyada ve Türkiye’de kentlerin büyümesi ve kentleşme hareketleri ile mikro iklim yapısında değişimler yaşanmakta ve kentler ısınmaktadır. Özellikle antropojenik aktivitelerin yoğunlaşmasıyla kentsel alanlarda, iklim değişikliğinin etkilerinden biri olan "kentsel ısı adası" (KIA) etkisi ortaya çıkmaktadır. KIA etkisi; sıcaklık, nem, güneş ışınımı, rüzgar gibi meteorolojik faktörlere ek olarak morfo-tipolojik faktörleri oluşturan; bina yükseklikleri, bina tipolojisi, coğrafi konum, kent geometrisi, yüzey ve döşeme malzemesi seçimi vb. antropojen etkiler sonucunda meydana gelmektedir. Bu çalışmada, Türkiye’de yer alan Bolu kentinde kontrolsüz kentsel gelişme sebebiyle meydana gelen KIA etkisi tanımlanarak mevcut durum ortaya koyulmakta ve mekânsal öneriler geliştirilmektedir. Araştırma yöntemi olarak öncelikle literatür değerlendirmesi yapılmış ve KIA’yı etkileyen faktörler irdelenmiştir. Literatürden çıkarılan ana başlıklar çerçevesinde CBS (GIS) kullanılarak kentteki mevcut durum ve KIA etkisi tartışılmaktadır. Son olarak, KIA etkisini azaltmaya yönelik mekansal stratejiler, kentsel tasarım önerisi olarak şematik çerçevede verilmekte ve kentin gelecek yıllardaki gelişim eğilimini yönlendirecek bir yol haritası oluşturmaktadır. Ayrıca, bu çalışma Bolu kent merkezi planlanma ve tasarımında akademi, meslek odaları, yerel yönetimler ve yerel halkın katılımıyla bütüncül, çevreye duyarlı stratejiler üretilmesine ve yeşil altyapı önerileriyle kentteki KIA etkisinin azaltılmasına rehberlik etmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Kentsel Isı Adası (KIA)
• İklim Değişikliği
• Bolu
• Mekansal Strateji
• Kentsel Tasarım

Spatial Strategies in Reducing Anthropogenic Urban Heat Island Impacts: The Case of Bolu City Center

Abstract

ABSTRACT The growth and urbanization of cities in the world and in Turkey have resulted in changes in the micro-climate structure, and cities are heating up. The "urban heat island" (UHI) effect, which is one of the effects of climate change in urban areas, is emerging especially with the concentration of anthropogenic activities. UHI effect, in addition to meteorological factors such as temperature, humidity, solar radiation, wind, morphological factors like building heights, building typology, geographic location, urban geometry, surface material selection, etc. is caused by anthropogenic effects. In this study, UHI effect which is caused by uncontrolled urban development in Bolu/ Turkey is identified and spatial strategies are developed. As a research method, the literature assessment was first taken and the factors affecting the UHI were investigated. Finally, the spatial strategies for reducing the UHI impact are given in the conceptual framework as a proposal for urban design and a roadmap that will guide the city's development trend in the coming years. In addition, this study guides the development of holistic, environmental-conscious strategies and the reduction of the UHI impact in the Bolu city center with green infrastructure proposals with academic, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), local governments and the participation of local people.

Keywords

• Urban Heat Island (UHI)
• climate change
• Bolu
• spatial strategy
• urban design

References

1. Aflaki, A., Mirnezhad, M., Ghaffarianhoseini, A., Omrany, H., Wang, Z. H., & Akbari, H. (2017). Urban heat island mitigation strategies: A state-of-the-art review on Kuala Lumpur, Singapore and Hong Kong. Cities, 62, 131-145.
2. Aksay, C. S., Ketenoğlu, O. & Kurt, L. (2005). Küresel Isınma ve İklim Değişikliği. Selçuk Üniversitesi Fen Fakültesi Fen Dergisi, 1(25), 29-42.
3. Akkurt, G.G., Turhan, C. & Velibeyoğlu, K. (2019). Doğa esaslı çözümler ile enerji tüketimini azaltmak ve kentlerimizi soğutmak, Türkiye Sağlıklı Kentler Birliği, Retrieved 7 January 2020 from https://www.skb.gov.tr/doga-esasli-cozumler-ile-enerji-tuketimini-azaltmak-ve-kentlerimizi-sogutmak-s31770k/).
4. Alexandri, E., & Jones, P. (2006). Sustainable urban future in southern Europe – what about the heat island effect? European Regional Science Association Conference Papers, Vienna, Austria.
5. Alkan, A., Adıgüzel, F., & Kaya, E. (2017). Batman Kentinde Kentsel Isınmanın Azaltılmasında Yeşil Alanların Önemi (The Importance of Green Places in Decreasing the Urban Temperature in Batman), Coğrafya Dergisi, 34, 62-76.
6. Álvarez, J. R. (2013, September). Heat Island and Urban Morphology: Observations and analysis from six European cities. In PLEA2013-29th Conference, Sustainable Architecture for a Renewable Future, Munich, Germany.
7. Aram, F., Solgi, E., & Holden, G. (2019). The role of green spaces in increasing social interactions in neighborhoods with periodic markets. Habitat International, 84, 24-32.
8. Azevedo, I., & Leal, V. M. (2017). Methodologies for the evaluation of local climate change mitigation actions: A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 79, 681-690.

9. Bass, B., Krayenhoff, S., Martilli, A., & Stull, R. (2002). Mitigating the urban heat island with green roof infrastructure. Urban Heat Island Summit: Toronto.
10. Battista, G., Carnielo, E., & Vollaro, R. D. L. (2016). Thermal impact of a redeveloped area on localized urban microclimate: A case study in Rome. Energy and Buildings, 133, 446-454.
11. Bayar, R., & Doğandor, E. (2017). Arazi Örtüsü İçerisinde Bolu Kentsel Değişiminin İzlenmesi(1987-2016) (Monitoring of Bolu Urban Change in a Land Cover (1987-2016). International Congress on the 75th Anniversary of TGS, 494-504. Retrieved September 9, 2021 from https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Rueya-Bayar/publication/323185623_Arazi_Ortusu_Icerisinde_Bolu_Kentsel_Degisiminin_Izlenmesi1987-2016/links/5a852d0aa6fdcc201b9f1ed2/Arazi-Oertuesue-Icerisinde-Bolu-Kentsel-Degisiminin-Izlenmesi1987-2016.pdf
12. Bayraktar, T., & Gerçek, D. (2014). Kentsel Isı Adası Etkisinin Uzaktan Algılama İle Tespiti ve Değerlendirilmesi: İzmit Kenti Örneği, 5. Uzaktan Algılama Sempozyumu. İstanbul.
13. Besir, A. B., & Cuce, E. (2018). Green roofs and facades: A comprehensive review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 82, 915-939.
14. Bhargava, A., Lakmini, S., & Bhargava, S. (2017). Urban Heat Island Effect: It’s relevance in urban planning. J. Biodivers. Endanger. Species, 5(187), 2020.
15. Bianco, L., Serra, V., Larcher, F., & Perino, M. (2017). Thermal behaviour assessment of a novel vertical greenery module system: first results of a long-term monitoring campaign in an outdoor test cell. Energy Efficiency, 10(3), 625-638.
16. Bolu Municipality Park and Garden Directorate. (2019). Urban Green Areas Report
17. Bowler, D. E., Buyung-Ali, L., Knight, T. M., & Pullin, A. S. (2010). Urban greening to cool towns and cities: A systematic review of the empirical evidence. Landscape and urban planning, 97(3), 147-155.
18. Brandt, L., Lewis, A. D., Fahey, R., Scott, L., Darling, L., & Swanston, C. (2016). A framework for adapting urban forests to climate change. Environmental Science & Policy, 66, 393-402.
19. Buyadi, S. N. A., Mohd, W. M. N. W., & Misni, A. (2015). Vegetation's role on modifying microclimate of urban resident. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 202, 400-407.
20. Büyükşahin, F. (2018). Antropojenik Etkiler İle Havanın Kirletilmesi ve İklim Değişikliği. Uluslararası İnsan Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(1), 14-26.
21. Cao, X., Onishi, A., Chen, J., & Imura, H. (2010). Quantifying the cool island intensity of urban parks using ASTER and IKONOS data. Landscape and Urban Planning, 96, 224-231.
22. Coşkun Hepcan, Ç. (2019). Kentlerde İklim Değişikliği ile Mücadele için Yeşil Altyapı Çözümleri. İklim Değişikliği Eğitim Modülleri Serisi, İklim Değişikliği Alanında Ortak Çabaların Desteklenmesi Projesi (İklinIN), Ankara.
23. Çağlak, S., Aydemir, K.P.K., & Kazancı, G. (2021). Effects of urbanization on bioclimatic comfort conditions; Bolu example. City Health Journal, 2(2), 47-55.
24. Çubukçu, K. M., & Şentürk, Y. (2022). Kentsel Soğuk Alan Soğutma Kapasitesinin Araştırılması, İzmir Örneği. Çevre Şehir ve İklim Dergisi, 1(1), 106-126.
25. Daniel, M., Lemonsu, A., & Viguie, V. (2018). Role of watering practices in large-scale urban planning strategies to face the heat-wave risk in future climate. Urban Climate, 23, 287-308.
26. Demirtürk, D. (2021). Sürdürülebilir Ulaşımda Sera Gazı Etkisini Azaltmaya Yönelik Çalışmalar. Mühendislik Bilimleri Ve Tasarım Dergisi, 9(4), 1080-1092.
27. Donner, J., Müller, J and Köppel, J. (2015). Urban heat: Towards adapted German cities? Journal of Environmental Assessment Policy and Management, 17(2), 1550020.
28. Ekici, B. (2016). Kentsel Alanlarda Oluşan Isı Adası Etkisinin Kentsel Tasarım Yöntemleri ile Azaltılması: Aksaray Meydanı Örneği (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
29. Enerji Piyasası Düzenleme Kurumu (EPDK) (2017). 2016 Yılına İlişkin İl Bazında Tüketici Sayısı, Ankara.
30. Erell, E., Pearlmutter, D., & Williamson, T. (2012). Urban microclimate: designing the spaces between buildings. Routledge.
31. Gago, E. J., Roldan, J., Pacheco-Torres, R., & Ordóñez, J. (2013). The city and urban heat islands: A review of strategies to mitigate adverse effects. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 25, 749-758.
32. Giridharan, R., & Emmanuel, R. (2018). The impact of urban compactness, comfort strategies and energy consumption on tropical urban heat island intensity: A review. Sustainable cities and society, 40, 677-687.
33. GLA. (2016). London’s Urban Heat Island: A Summary for Decision Makers. Retrieved from https://www.puc.state.pa.us/electric/pdf/dsr/dsrwg_sub_ECA-London.pdf
34. He, B. J. (2019). Towards the next generation of green building for urban heat island mitigation: Zero UHI impact building. Sustainable Cities and Society, 50, 101647.
35. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (The World Bank) (2020). Primer for Cool Cities: Reducing Excessive Urban Heat. Retrieved from https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/605601595393390081/pdf/Primer-for-Cool-Cities-Reducing-Excessive-Urban-Heat-with-a-Focus-on-Passive-Measures.pdf
36. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). (2021). Summary for policymakers. V. Masson-Delmotte ve diğerleri (Ed.), Climate Change 2021: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change içinde. Cambridge University Press. In Press. Retrieved 13 July 2023 from https://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar6/wg1/downloads/report/IPCC_AR6_WGI_SPM_final.pdf
37. James, P., Tzoulas, K., Adams, M. D., Barber, A., Box, J., Breuste, J., ... & Thompson, C. W. (2009). Towards an integrated understanding of green space in the European built environment. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, 8(2), 65-75.
38. Katz, P. (1994). The New Urbanism. Toward an architecture of community.
39. Klemm, W., Heusinkveld, B. G., Lenzholzer, S., & van Hove, B. (2015). Street greenery and its physical and psychological impact on thermal comfort. Landscape and urban planning, 138, 87-98.
40. Koçak, İ., & Boran, K. (2019). Türkiye’deki illerin elektrik tüketim etkinliklerinin veri zarflama analizi ile değerlendirilmesi. Politeknik Dergisi, 22(2), 351-365.
41. Kuşçu Şimşek, Ç. (2013). İstanbul’da Kentsel İklim Üzerine Antropojenik Etkiler: Kent Isı Adalarının İncelenmesi (Doktora Tezi). Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul.
42. Leal Filho, W., Icaza, L. E., Neht, A., Klavins, M., & Morgan, E. A. (2018). Coping with the impacts of urban heat islands. A literature based study on understanding urban heat vulnerability and the need for resilience in cities in a global climate change context. Journal of Cleaner Production, 171, 1140-1149.
43. Lehmann, S. (2014). Low carbon districts: Mitigating the urban heat island with green roof infrastructure. City, Culture and Society, 5(1), 1-8.
44. Li, W., Cao, Q., Lang, K., & Wu, J. (2017). Linking potential heat source and sink to urban heat island: Heterogeneous effects of landscape pattern on land surface temperature. Science of the Total Environment, 586, 457-465.
45. Li, Y., Sun, Y., Li, J., & Gao, C. (2020). Socioeconomic drivers of urban heat island effect: Empirical evidence from major Chinese cities. Sustainable Cities and Society, 63, 102425.
46. Maimaitiyiming, M., Ghulam, A., Tiyip, T., Pla, F., Carmona, P., Halik. Ü., Sawut, M., & Caetano, M. (2014). Effects of green Space Spatial Pattern On Land Surface Temperature: Implications for sustaniable Urban Planning and Climate Change Adaptation. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 89, 59-66.
47. Makvandi, M., & Li, B. (2016). The Relation Between Urban Morphology and Local Climate Towards the Urban Form to Reach a Reasonable and Sustainable Urban Design, 3rd International Conferences of Research in Engineering, Science and Technology, Georgia.
48. Manso, M., & Castro-Gomes, J. (2015). Green wall systems: A review of their characteristics. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 41, 863-871.
49. McDonald, R., Kroeger, T., Boucher, T., Wang, L., & Salem, R. (2016). Planting healthy air: a global analysis of the role of urban trees in addressing particulate matter pollution and extreme heat. Planting healthy air: a global analysis of the role of urban trees in addressing particulate matter pollution and extreme heat, 128-139.
50. Mirzaei, P. A. (2015). Recent challenges in modeling of urban heat island. Sustainable cities and society, 19, 200-206.
51. Mobaraki, A. (2012). Strategies for Mitigating Urban Heat Island Effects in Cities: Case of Shiraz City Center (Doctoral dissertation). Eastern Mediterranean University.
52. Nichol, J. (2005). Remote sensing of urban heat islands by day and night. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, 71(5), 613-621.
53. Oke, T. R. (1981). Canyon geometry and the nocturnal urban heat island: comparison of scale model and field observations. Journal of climatology, 1(3), 237-254.
54. Oke, T.R. (1992). Boundary Layer Climates. Routledge: London, UK.
55. O’Malley, C., Piroozfar, P., Farr, E. R., & Pomponi, F. (2015). Urban Heat Island (UHI) mitigating strategies: A case-based comparative analysis. Sustainable cities and society, 19, 222-235.
56. Orhan, O. (2021). Mersin ilindeki kentsel büyümenin yer yüzey sıcaklığı üzerine etkisinin araştırılması. Geomatik, 6(1), 69-76.
57. Pacheco-Torgal, F. (2015). Introduction to eco-efficient materials to mitigate building cooling needs. Eco-Efficient Materials for Mitigating Building Cooling Needs, 1-9.
58. Ramboll (2015). Heat Resilient Cities, Measuring Benefits of Urban Heat Adaptation, Retrieved from (https://ramboll.com/-/media/files/rm/c40---heat-resilience/c40-case-studie-medellin.pdf?la=en
59. Rosenfeld, A. H., Akbari, H., Romm, J. J., & Pomerantz, M. (1998). Cool communities: strategies for heat island mitigation and smog reduction. Energy and buildings, 28(1), 51-62.
60. Santamouris, M. (2014). Cooling the cities—a review of reflective and green roof mitigation technologies to fight heat island and improve comfort in urban environments, Solar Energy 103, 682–703.
61. Selim, S., Eyileten, B. & Karakuş, N. (2023). İnvestigation of Green Space Cooling Potential on Land Surface Temperature in Antalya City of Turkey. 39th International Symposium on Remote Sensing of Environment (ISRSE-39) “From Human Needs to SDGs”, 24–28 April 2023, Antalya, Türkiye.
62. Shahmohamadi, P., Che-Ani, A. I., Maulud, K. N. A., Sairi, A., & Mohd-Nor, M. F. I. (2010). The framework to mitigate the urban heat island effect for improving environment and protecting human health. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning, 5(4), 351-366.
63. Shishegar, N. (2013). Street design and urban microclimate: analyzing the effects of street geometryand orientation on airflow and solar access in urban canyons. Journal of clean energy technologies, 1(1), 52-56.
64. Stone Jr, B., & Rodgers, M. O. (2001). Urban form and thermal efficiency: how the design of cities influences the urban heat island effect. American Planning Association. Journal of the American Planning Association, 67(2), 186.
65. Şahin, G., & Taşlıgil, N. (2019). Bolu İlinde Nüfusun Gelişimi Ve Nüfus Hareketleri. Social Sciences, 14(5), 2515-2545.
66. Taner, İ. (2014). Bolu Kentinin Mekansal Gelişimi (Spatial development of Bolu City). AİBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14(1), 377-411.
67. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı (ÇŞB) (2021). Bolu İli 2020 Yılı Çevre Durum Raporu. Retrieved from (https://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/bolu/icerikler/bolu-il--2020-yili-cevre-durum-raporu-20210611103943.pdf).
68. T.C. Bolu Valiliği Çevre ve Şehircilik İl Müdürlüğü (2020). Bolu İli Temiz Hava Eylem Planı (THEP) (2020-2024). Retrieved 4 February 2022 from https://webdosya.csb.gov.tr/db/bolu/icerikler/bolu-ili-temiz-hava-eylem-plani-2020-2024-20200604084533.pdf
69. Tonyaloğlu, E. E. (2019). Kentleşmenin kentsel termal çevre üzerindeki etkisinin değerlendirilmesi, efeler ve İncirliova (Aydın) örneği. Türkiye Peyzaj Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1), 1-13.
70. TUİK (2021). Motorlu Kara Taşıtları İstatistiği, Retrieved 10 December 2021 from https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Motorlu-Kara-Tasitlari-Aralik-2021-45703
71. United Nations (UN) (2020). Conference of the parties (COP). Retrieved 19 February 2022 from https://unfccc.int/process/bodies/supreme-bodies/conference-of-the-parties-cop
72. Wang, J., & Banzhaf, E. (2018). Towards a better understanding of Green Infrastructure: A critical review. Ecological Indicators, 85, 758-772.
73. WHO (2006). Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulphur dioxide. Global update, Summary of Risk Assessment Report.
74. Wong, N. H., & Yu, C. (2005). Study of green areas and urban heat island in a tropical city. Habitat international, 29(3), 547-558.
75. WWF (2008). Türkiye’deki Ramsar Alanları Değerlendirme Raporu, Retrieved from http://awsassets.wwftr.panda.org/downloads/wwf_turkiye_ramsar_alanlari_degerlendirme_raporu.pdf
76. Xi, T., Li, Q., Mochida, A., & Meng, Q. (2012). Study on the outdoor thermal environment and thermal comfort around campus clusters in subtropical urban areas. Building and Environment, 52, 162-170.
77. Xu, X., Gregory, J., & Kirchain, R. (2015). The impact of surface albedo on climate and building energy consumption: review and comparative analysis.
78. Yao, X., Yu, K., Zeng, X., Lin, Y., Ye, B., Shen, X., & Liu, J. (2022). How can urban parks be planned to mitigate urban heat island effect in “Furnace cities”? An accumulation perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, 330, 129852.
79. Yılmaz, E. (2016). Landsat görüntüleri ile Adana yüzey ısı adası. Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi, 13(2), 115-138.
80. Živković, J. (2020). Urban form and function. Climate action, 862-871.
81. Zhang, W., Zhu, Y., & Jiang, J. (2016). Effect of the urbanization of wetlands on microclimate: A case study of Xixi Wetland, Hangzhou, China. Sustainability, 8(9), 885.
82. Zupancic T, Westmacott C., & Bulthuis M. (2015). The impact of green space on heat and air pollution in urban communities : A meta-narrative systematic review, 1–68.
83. URL-1: https://bilimgenc.tubitak.gov.tr/makale/agaclar-sehirlerin-sicakligini-nasil-etkiler
84. URL-2: https://www.e-sehir.com/turkiye-haritasi/bolu-trafik-yol-durumu-yogunluk-haritasi.htm