Research Article

Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods

Volume: 12 Number: 1 January 20, 2026
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Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods

Abstract

Objective: Diagnosing extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) is difficult because of its paucibacillary nature and the need for invasive sampling. This study evaluated the diagnostic performance and inter-test agreement of commonly used methods and identified demographic and clinical features that may assist diagnosis. Methods: This retrospective cohort study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital (2018–2025). EPTB was defined as at least one positive result from acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear microscopy, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), solid or automated liquid cultures. Demographics, comorbidities, symptoms, laboratory results, histopathological and radiological findings were obtained from medical records. The positivity proportions were calculated, and agreement was assessed using the kappa coefficient. Results: 46 adult patients with EPTB were included. The mean age was 51.6 ± 20.1 years, with female predominance (67.4%). The most frequent sites were the lymph nodes (32.6%), genitourinary tract (21.7%), and musculoskeletal system (21.7%). The highest positivity was observed with automated liquid culture (76.1%), followed by solid culture (71.7%) and PCR (59.5%); AFB smears had the lowest rate (19.6%). Granulomatous inflammation was detected in 63.2% of patients who underwent pathological examination and caseous necrosis in 36.8%. There was slight agreement between AFB smear microscopy, culture, and histopathology. PCR results showed poor agreement with solid and automated liquid cultures, including negative kappa values. Radiological examinations revealed pathological findings in 88.2% of patients, predominantly lymphadenopathy. Conclusion: Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of EPTB remains challenging. These findings support a multimodal strategy that integrates microbiological, molecular, histopathological, and radiological methods to improve diagnostic accuracy.

Keywords

Supporting Institution

The authors declare that this research did not receive any financial support from any funding agency in public, commercial, or not-for-profit organizations.

Ethical Statement

The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal, as noted on the journal’s author guidelines page, have been adhered to and appropriate ethical review committee approval has been received. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical Association, revised in 2013, for experiments involving humans and with the protocols of the Ethics Committee of the Kocaeli University Faculty of Medicine. The project was assigned the number 2025/302 and received approval under the code GOKAEK-2025/13/15.

Thanks

The abrupt passing of our colleague and friend Emel Azak continues to affect us. We respectfully remember and acknowledge her memory. We also acknowledge Associate Professor Dr. Sibel Balcı from Kocaeli University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Kocaeli, Turkey for the statistical analysis of the data.

References

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Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

Infectious Diseases

Journal Section

Research Article

Publication Date

January 20, 2026

Submission Date

October 15, 2025

Acceptance Date

December 23, 2025

Published in Issue

Year 2026 Volume: 12 Number: 1

APA
Güler, Ö., Altun, Z., Özel, S. H., Toygar Deniz, M., Sayan, M., & Akhan, S. (2026). Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 12(1), 69-75. https://doi.org/10.30934/kusbed.1803934
AMA
1.Güler Ö, Altun Z, Özel SH, Toygar Deniz M, Sayan M, Akhan S. Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods. KOU Sag Bil Derg. 2026;12(1):69-75. doi:10.30934/kusbed.1803934
Chicago
Güler, Özlem, Zeynep Altun, Sevim Hazal Özel, Müge Toygar Deniz, Murat Sayan, and Sila Akhan. 2026. “Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods”. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi 12 (1): 69-75. https://doi.org/10.30934/kusbed.1803934.
EndNote
Güler Ö, Altun Z, Özel SH, Toygar Deniz M, Sayan M, Akhan S (January 1, 2026) Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi 12 1 69–75.
IEEE
[1]Ö. Güler, Z. Altun, S. H. Özel, M. Toygar Deniz, M. Sayan, and S. Akhan, “Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods”, KOU Sag Bil Derg, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 69–75, Jan. 2026, doi: 10.30934/kusbed.1803934.
ISNAD
Güler, Özlem - Altun, Zeynep - Özel, Sevim Hazal - Toygar Deniz, Müge - Sayan, Murat - Akhan, Sila. “Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods”. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi 12/1 (January 1, 2026): 69-75. https://doi.org/10.30934/kusbed.1803934.
JAMA
1.Güler Ö, Altun Z, Özel SH, Toygar Deniz M, Sayan M, Akhan S. Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods. KOU Sag Bil Derg. 2026;12:69–75.
MLA
Güler, Özlem, et al. “Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods”. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, vol. 12, no. 1, Jan. 2026, pp. 69-75, doi:10.30934/kusbed.1803934.
Vancouver
1.Özlem Güler, Zeynep Altun, Sevim Hazal Özel, Müge Toygar Deniz, Murat Sayan, Sila Akhan. Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods. KOU Sag Bil Derg. 2026 Jan. 1;12(1):69-75. doi:10.30934/kusbed.1803934