Challenges in the Diagnosis of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis and Comparison of Diagnostic Methods
Yıl 2026,
Cilt: 12 Sayı: 1, 69 - 75, 20.01.2026
Özlem Güler
,
Zeynep Altun
,
Sevim Hazal Özel
,
Müge Toygar Deniz
,
Murat Sayan
,
Sila Akhan
Öz
Objective: Diagnosing extrapulmonary tuberculosis (EPTB) is difficult because of its paucibacillary nature and the need for invasive sampling. This study evaluated the diagnostic performance and inter-test agreement of commonly used methods and identified demographic and clinical features that may assist diagnosis.
Methods: This retrospective cohort study was conducted at a tertiary care hospital (2018–2025). EPTB was defined as at least one positive result from acid-fast bacilli (AFB) smear microscopy, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), solid or automated liquid cultures. Demographics, comorbidities, symptoms, laboratory results, histopathological and radiological findings were obtained from medical records. The positivity proportions were calculated, and agreement was assessed using the kappa coefficient.
Results: 46 adult patients with EPTB were included. The mean age was 51.6 ± 20.1 years, with female predominance (67.4%). The most frequent sites were the lymph nodes (32.6%), genitourinary tract (21.7%), and musculoskeletal system (21.7%). The highest positivity was observed with automated liquid culture (76.1%), followed by solid culture (71.7%) and PCR (59.5%); AFB smears had the lowest rate (19.6%). Granulomatous inflammation was detected in 63.2% of patients who underwent pathological examination and caseous necrosis in 36.8%. There was slight agreement between AFB smear microscopy, culture, and histopathology. PCR results showed poor agreement with solid and automated liquid cultures, including negative kappa values. Radiological examinations revealed pathological findings in 88.2% of patients, predominantly lymphadenopathy.
Conclusion: Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of EPTB remains challenging. These findings support a multimodal strategy that integrates microbiological, molecular, histopathological, and radiological methods to improve diagnostic accuracy.
Etik Beyan
The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal, as noted on the journal’s author guidelines page, have been adhered to and appropriate ethical review committee approval has been received. This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki of the World Medical Association, revised in 2013, for experiments involving humans and with the protocols of the Ethics Committee of the Kocaeli University Faculty of Medicine. The project was assigned the number 2025/302 and received approval under the code GOKAEK-2025/13/15.
Destekleyen Kurum
The authors declare that this research did not receive any financial support from any funding agency in public, commercial, or not-for-profit organizations.
Teşekkür
The abrupt passing of our colleague and friend Emel Azak continues to affect us. We respectfully remember and acknowledge her memory. We also acknowledge Associate Professor Dr. Sibel Balcı from Kocaeli University, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Biostatistics and Medical Informatics, Kocaeli, Turkey for the statistical analysis of the data.
Kaynakça
-
Referans1 Baykan AH, Sayiner HS, Aydin E, Koc M, Inan I, Erturk SM. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an old but resurgent problem. Insights into Imaging. 2022;13(1):39. doi:10.1186/s13244-022-01172-0
-
Referans2 Global Tuberculosis Report 2024. 1st ed. World Health Organization; 2024.
-
Referans3 Jain R, Gupta G, Mitra DK, Guleria R. Diagnosis of extra pulmonary tuberculosis: An update on novel diagnostic approaches. Respiratory Medicine. 2024;225. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2024.107601
-
Referans4 Fang Y, Zhou Q, Li L, Zhou Y, Sha W. Epidemiological characteristics of extrapulmonary tuberculosis patients with or without pulmonary tuberculosis. Epidemiol Infect. 2022;150:e158. doi:10.1017/S0950268822001236
-
Referans5 Klingmüller A, Feldmann M, Rohr S, et al. Clinical heterogeneity and treatment outcomes of extrapulmonary tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting: insights from a prospective cohort study. Infection. 2025;53(5):1809-1818. doi:10.1007/s15010-025-02500-4
-
Referans6 Wilmink J, Vollenberg R, Olaru ID, Fischer J, Trebicka J, Tepasse PR. Diagnostic Challenges in Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: A Single-Center Experience in a High-Resource Setting at a German Tertiary Care Center. Infectious Disease Reports. 2025;17(3):39. doi:10.3390/idr17030039
-
Referans7 von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, et al. Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. BMJ. 2007;335(7624):806-808. doi:10.1136/bmj.39335.541782.AD
-
Referans8 Getahun H, Kittikraisak W, Heilig CM, et al. Development of a Standardized Screening Rule for Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV in Resource-Constrained Settings: Individual Participant Data Meta-analysis of Observational Studies. Murray M, ed. PLoS Med. 2011;8(1):e1000391. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000391
-
Referans9 Khan A, Mathelier A. Intervene: a tool for intersection and visualization of multiple gene or genomic region sets. BMC Bioinformatics. 2017;18(1):287. doi:10.1186/s12859-017-1708-7
-
Referans10 Landis JR, Koch GG. The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159-174. doi:10.2307/2529310
-
Referans11 Qian X, Nguyen DT, Lyu J, Albers AE, Bi X, Graviss EA. Risk factors for extrapulmonary dissemination of tuberculosis and associated mortality during treatment for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2018;7(1):102. doi:10.1038/s41426-018-0106-1
-
Referans12 Yoon HJ, Song YG, Park WI, Choi JP, Chang KH, Kim JM. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Yonsei Med J. 2004;45(3):453-461. doi:10.3349/ymj.2004.45.3.453
-
Referans13 Li F, Chen D, Zeng Q, Du Y. Possible Mechanisms of Lymphopenia in Severe Tuberculosis. Microorganisms. 2023;11(11):2640. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11112640
-
Referans14 Nassaji M, Azarhoush R, Ghorbani R, Kavian F. Acid fast staining in formalin-fixed tissue specimen of patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Sci Res Publ. 20108; 4(10). http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-1014.php?rp=P343200
-
Referans15 Uddin MKM, Ather MF, Kabir S, et al. Diagnostic Performance of Different Laboratory Methods for the Detection of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Microorganisms. 2023;11(4):1066. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11041066
-
Referans16 Lee JY. Diagnosis and Treatment of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Tuberc Respir Dis. 2015;78(2):47-55. doi:10.4046/trd.2015.78.2.47
-
Referans17 Babafemi EO, Cherian BP, Banting L, Mills GA, Ngianga K. Effectiveness of real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in pathological samples: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews. 2017;6(1):215. doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0608-2
-
Referans18 Perez-Risco D, Rodriguez-Temporal D, Valledor-Sanchez I, Alcaide F. Evaluation of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra Assay for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Smear-Negative Extrapulmonary Samples. Land GA, ed. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56(9):e00659-18. doi:10.1128/JCM.00659-18
-
Referans19 Wang G, Yang X, Zhu J, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of Myco/F lytic system, MGIT960 system and Lowenstein-Jensen medium for recovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from sterile body fluids. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):37757. doi:10.1038/srep37757
-
Referans20 Mishra V, Sami H, Bareja R, Goyal RK, Behara RN. Evaluation of mgit over other phenotypic methods for the detection of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tb at a tertiary care centre in North India. IJPSR, 2016; Vol. 7(6): 2568-2572. Doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.7(6).2568-72
-
Referans21 Cuong NK, Thanh DV, Luong DV, et al. Histopathological features in the clinical specimens with tuberculosis diagnosis by BACTEC MGIT 960 culture. Journal of Clinical Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacterial Diseases. 2023;33:100401. doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2023.100401
-
Referans22 Bae KM, Lim SC, Kim HH, et al. The Relevance of Biopsy in Tuberculosis Patients Without Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2015;92(3):636-640. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.14-0656
-
Referans23 Rodriguez-Takeuchi SY, Renjifo ME, Medina FJ. Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology and Imaging Findings. Radiographics. 2019;39(7):2023-2037. doi:10.1148/rg.2019190109
Ekstrapulmoner tüberküloz tanısında farklı yöntemlerin karşılaştırılması ve tanısal güçlükler
Yıl 2026,
Cilt: 12 Sayı: 1, 69 - 75, 20.01.2026
Özlem Güler
,
Zeynep Altun
,
Sevim Hazal Özel
,
Müge Toygar Deniz
,
Murat Sayan
,
Sila Akhan
Öz
Amaç: Ekstrapulmoner tüberküloz (EPTB) tanısı düşük basil yükü ve invaziv örnekleme gereksinimi nedeniyle güçtür. Bu çalışma, tanıda kullanılan yöntemlerin tanısal performansını ve aralarındaki uyumu değerlendirmeyi amaçlamıştır. Ayrıca, tanıda yardımcı olabilecek demografik özelliklerle, semptom ve bulguları tanımlamayı hedeflemiştir.
Yöntem: Bu retrospektif kohort çalışma, 2018–2025 yılları arasında bir üçüncü basamak üniversite hastanesinde yürütülmüştür. EPTB, asidorezistan basil (AFB) yayma mikroskopisi, polimeraz zincir reaksiyonu (PCR), katı kültür veya otomatize sıvı kültür yöntemlerinden en az birinde pozitiflik saptanmasıyla tanımlanmıştır. Demografik özellikler, komorbiditeler, semptomlar, laboratuvar sonuçları ile histopatolojik ve radyolojik bulgular, elektronik sağlık kayıtlarından retrospektif olarak toplanmıştır. Pozitiflik oranları hesaplanmış ve yöntemler arası uyum kappa katsayısı ile değerlendirilmiştir.
Bulgular: Toplam 46 yetişkin EPTB hastası çalışmaya dahil edilmiştir. Ortalama yaş 51,6 ± 20,1 yıl olup kadınlar %67,4 ile çoğunluğu oluşturmuştur. En sık tutulum bölgeleri lenf nodları (%32,6), genitoüriner sistem (%21,7) ve kas-iskelet sistemi (%21,7) olarak saptanmıştır. Tanı testlerinde, en yüksek pozitiflik oranı otomatize sıvı kültürde (%76,1) izlenmiş; bunu katı kültür (%71,7) ve PCR (%59,5) takip etmiştir. AFB yayma mikroskopisinde oran en düşük düzeyde (%19,6) bulunmuştur. Patolojik incelemelerin %63,2’sinde granülomatöz inflamasyon, %36,8’inde kazeöz nekroz tespit edilmiştir. AFB yayması, kültür ve histopatoloji arasındaki uyum düşük kalmıştır. PCR ile katı ve otomatize sıvı kültürler arasında, negatif kappa değerlerine varan düzeyde uyumsuzluk gözlenmiştir. Radyolojik incelemelerde hastaların %88,2’sinde patolojik bulgular raporlanmış ve en sık lenfadenopati izlenmiştir.
Sonuç: EPTB’nin klinik ve laboratuvar tanısı günümüzde de zorluklarını sürdürmektedir. Bulgularımız, tanısal doğruluğu artırmak amacıyla mikrobiyolojik, moleküler, histopatolojik ve radyolojik yöntemleri uygun biçimde birleştiren çok yönlü bir yaklaşıma ihtiyaç olduğunu desteklemektedir.
Etik Beyan
Yazarlar, derginin yazar kılavuzunda belirtilen etik politikalarının uygulandığını ve ilgili etik inceleme kurulunun onayını aldığını teyit ederler. Bu çalışma, 2013 yılında revize edilen Dünya Tıp Birliği'nin Helsinki Bildirgesi'ne ve Kocaeli Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Etik Kurulu'nun protokollerine uygun olarak, insanlar üzerinde yapılan deneyler için gerçekleştirilmiştir. Projeye 2025/302 numarası verilmiş ve GOKAEK-2025/13/15 koduyla onay almıştır.
Destekleyen Kurum
Yazarlar, bu araştırmanın kamu, ticari veya kar amacı gütmeyen kuruluşların hiçbir finansman kurumundan herhangi bir mali destek almadığını beyan ederler.
Teşekkür
Meslektaşımız ve dostumuz Emel Azak'ın ani vefatı bizi derinden etkilemeye devam ediyor. Onun anısını saygıyla anıyor ve minnetle hatırlıyoruz. Ayrıca, verilerin istatistiksel analizini gerçekleştiren Kocaeli Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Biyoistatistik ve Tıbbi Bilişim Anabilim Dalı'ndan Doç. Dr. Sibel Balcı'ya teşekkür ederiz.
Kaynakça
-
Referans1 Baykan AH, Sayiner HS, Aydin E, Koc M, Inan I, Erturk SM. Extrapulmonary tuberculosis: an old but resurgent problem. Insights into Imaging. 2022;13(1):39. doi:10.1186/s13244-022-01172-0
-
Referans2 Global Tuberculosis Report 2024. 1st ed. World Health Organization; 2024.
-
Referans3 Jain R, Gupta G, Mitra DK, Guleria R. Diagnosis of extra pulmonary tuberculosis: An update on novel diagnostic approaches. Respiratory Medicine. 2024;225. doi:10.1016/j.rmed.2024.107601
-
Referans4 Fang Y, Zhou Q, Li L, Zhou Y, Sha W. Epidemiological characteristics of extrapulmonary tuberculosis patients with or without pulmonary tuberculosis. Epidemiol Infect. 2022;150:e158. doi:10.1017/S0950268822001236
-
Referans5 Klingmüller A, Feldmann M, Rohr S, et al. Clinical heterogeneity and treatment outcomes of extrapulmonary tuberculosis in a low-incidence setting: insights from a prospective cohort study. Infection. 2025;53(5):1809-1818. doi:10.1007/s15010-025-02500-4
-
Referans6 Wilmink J, Vollenberg R, Olaru ID, Fischer J, Trebicka J, Tepasse PR. Diagnostic Challenges in Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: A Single-Center Experience in a High-Resource Setting at a German Tertiary Care Center. Infectious Disease Reports. 2025;17(3):39. doi:10.3390/idr17030039
-
Referans7 von Elm E, Altman DG, Egger M, et al. Strengthening the Reporting of Observational Studies in Epidemiology (STROBE) statement: guidelines for reporting observational studies. BMJ. 2007;335(7624):806-808. doi:10.1136/bmj.39335.541782.AD
-
Referans8 Getahun H, Kittikraisak W, Heilig CM, et al. Development of a Standardized Screening Rule for Tuberculosis in People Living with HIV in Resource-Constrained Settings: Individual Participant Data Meta-analysis of Observational Studies. Murray M, ed. PLoS Med. 2011;8(1):e1000391. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1000391
-
Referans9 Khan A, Mathelier A. Intervene: a tool for intersection and visualization of multiple gene or genomic region sets. BMC Bioinformatics. 2017;18(1):287. doi:10.1186/s12859-017-1708-7
-
Referans10 Landis JR, Koch GG. The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical Data. Biometrics. 1977;33(1):159-174. doi:10.2307/2529310
-
Referans11 Qian X, Nguyen DT, Lyu J, Albers AE, Bi X, Graviss EA. Risk factors for extrapulmonary dissemination of tuberculosis and associated mortality during treatment for extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Emerg Microbes Infect. 2018;7(1):102. doi:10.1038/s41426-018-0106-1
-
Referans12 Yoon HJ, Song YG, Park WI, Choi JP, Chang KH, Kim JM. Clinical manifestations and diagnosis of extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Yonsei Med J. 2004;45(3):453-461. doi:10.3349/ymj.2004.45.3.453
-
Referans13 Li F, Chen D, Zeng Q, Du Y. Possible Mechanisms of Lymphopenia in Severe Tuberculosis. Microorganisms. 2023;11(11):2640. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11112640
-
Referans14 Nassaji M, Azarhoush R, Ghorbani R, Kavian F. Acid fast staining in formalin-fixed tissue specimen of patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis. Int J Sci Res Publ. 20108; 4(10). http://www.ijsrp.org/research-paper-1014.php?rp=P343200
-
Referans15 Uddin MKM, Ather MF, Kabir S, et al. Diagnostic Performance of Different Laboratory Methods for the Detection of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Microorganisms. 2023;11(4):1066. doi:10.3390/microorganisms11041066
-
Referans16 Lee JY. Diagnosis and Treatment of Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis. Tuberc Respir Dis. 2015;78(2):47-55. doi:10.4046/trd.2015.78.2.47
-
Referans17 Babafemi EO, Cherian BP, Banting L, Mills GA, Ngianga K. Effectiveness of real-time polymerase chain reaction assay for the detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in pathological samples: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Systematic Reviews. 2017;6(1):215. doi:10.1186/s13643-017-0608-2
-
Referans18 Perez-Risco D, Rodriguez-Temporal D, Valledor-Sanchez I, Alcaide F. Evaluation of the Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra Assay for Direct Detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex in Smear-Negative Extrapulmonary Samples. Land GA, ed. J Clin Microbiol. 2018;56(9):e00659-18. doi:10.1128/JCM.00659-18
-
Referans19 Wang G, Yang X, Zhu J, et al. Evaluation of the efficacy of Myco/F lytic system, MGIT960 system and Lowenstein-Jensen medium for recovery of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from sterile body fluids. Sci Rep. 2016;6(1):37757. doi:10.1038/srep37757
-
Referans20 Mishra V, Sami H, Bareja R, Goyal RK, Behara RN. Evaluation of mgit over other phenotypic methods for the detection of pulmonary and extrapulmonary tb at a tertiary care centre in North India. IJPSR, 2016; Vol. 7(6): 2568-2572. Doi: 10.13040/IJPSR.0975-8232.7(6).2568-72
-
Referans21 Cuong NK, Thanh DV, Luong DV, et al. Histopathological features in the clinical specimens with tuberculosis diagnosis by BACTEC MGIT 960 culture. Journal of Clinical Tuberculosis and Other Mycobacterial Diseases. 2023;33:100401. doi:10.1016/j.jctube.2023.100401
-
Referans22 Bae KM, Lim SC, Kim HH, et al. The Relevance of Biopsy in Tuberculosis Patients Without Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2015;92(3):636-640. doi:10.4269/ajtmh.14-0656
-
Referans23 Rodriguez-Takeuchi SY, Renjifo ME, Medina FJ. Extrapulmonary Tuberculosis: Pathophysiology and Imaging Findings. Radiographics. 2019;39(7):2023-2037. doi:10.1148/rg.2019190109