Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture

Laçin Akyıl; Emre Aydilek; Alihan Pasin

doi:10.36484/liberal.1665348

TR EN

Avrupa Birliği’nde Aşırı Sağın Yükselişini Anlamak: Siyasi Kültür Üzerine Lévi-Straussçu Bir Perspektif

Abstract

Claude Lévi-Strauss’un yapısalcı çerçevesi bu çalışmada altı AB üye ülkesinde aşırı sağ popülist hareketlerin ortaya çıkışını incelemek için kullanılmıştır: Fransa, Almanya, İtalya, Macaristan, İsveç ve Portekiz. Çalışma, parti manifestoları ve programlarına bakarak aşırı sağ söyleminMsembolik temellerini ortaya çıkarmak için makro düzeyde nitel yöntemler ve mikro düzeyde manuel belge analizi kullanmaktadır. Sonuçlar, bu hareketlerin siyasi anlam üretmek için bize karşı onlar, doğal olana karşı yapay olan ve temiz olana karşı kirli olan gibi ikili karşıtlıkları kullandığını göstermektedir. Bu karşıtlıklar, mit ve kültürel kodlara ilişkin yapısalcı inançlarla tutarlıdır. Aşırı sağ partiler, liderlerini felaket ve yeniden doğuş hikayelerinin kahramanları olarak tasvir etmekte ve kendilerini mitleştirilmiş bir ulusal kimliğin savunucuları olarak resmetmektedirler. Bu sembolik sistemler içerisinde İslamofobi, Avrupa şüpheciliği ve göçmen karşıtlığı söylemleri, kültürel mitlerin yanı sıra politika duruşları olarak da işlev görmektedir. Çalışma, aşırı sağ popülizmin en iyi yapısal dönüşüme verilen kültürel bir yanıt olarak anlaşılabileceği sonucuna varmaktadır ki Lévi-Strauss’un teorisi bunun için ikna edici bir analitik araç sunmaktadır.

Keywords

Levi-Strauss, Avrupa Birliği, Siyasal Kültür, Aşırı Sağ, Popülist liderlik, Döküman Analizi

Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture

Abstract

The structuralist framework of Claude Lévi-Strauss is used in this study to examine the emergence of far-right populist movements in six European Union (EU) member states: France, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Sweden, and Portugal. The study uses qualitative methods at the macro level and manual document analysis at the micro level to uncover the symbolic underpinnings of far-right speech by looking at party manifestos and programs. The results demonstrate that these movements use binary oppositions -such as us against them, natural versus artificial, and clean versus dirty -to generate political meaning. These oppositions are consistent with structuralist beliefs about myth and cultural codes. Far-right parties portray their leaders as heroes in stories of catastrophe and rebirth, and they portray themselves as defenders of a mythologized national identity. Within these symbolic systems, discourses on Islamophobia, Euroskepticism, and anti-immigration serve as cultural myths as well as policy stances. The study concludes that far-right populism is best understood as a cultural response to structural transformation, for which the theory of Lévi-Strauss offers a compelling analytical tool.

Keywords

Levi-Strauss, European Union, Political Culture, Far Right, Populist Leadership, Document Analysis

Ethical Statement

The online softwares ‘DeepL Translator’ and ‘Grammarly’ were used during the English language editing and revision of the article.

References

Brubaker, R. (2017). Why populism?. Theory and Society, 46, 357-385. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-017-9301-7
Canovan, M. (1999). Trust the people! Populism and the two faces of democracy. Political Studies, 47(1), 2-16. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.00184
Caramani, D., & Manucci, L. (2019). National past and populism: the re-elaboration of fascism and its impact on right-wing populism in Western Europe. West European Politics, 42(6), 1159-1187. https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2019.1596690
Cemal, H. (2012). 1915: Ermeni Soykırımı (2nd ed.). İstanbul: Everest Yayınları.
Chueri, J. (2022). What distinguishes radical right welfare chauvinism? Excluding different migrant groups from the welfare state. Journal of European Social Policy, 33(1), 84-100. https://doi.org/10.1177/09589287221128441
Coi, G. (2024, May 24). Mapped: Europe’s rapidly rising right. POLITICO. Retrieved from https://www.politico.eu/article/mapped-europe-far-right-government-power-politics-eu-italy-finalnd-hungary-parties-elections-polling/
Commission of the European Communities. (2007). On a European agenda for culture in a globalizing world. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52007DC0242
Delanty, G. (1995). Inventing Europe: idea, identity, reality. London, UK: Macmillan.
Delanty, G. (2003). Europe and the idea of “Unity in Diversity.” In R. Lindahl (Ed.). Whither Europe? Borders, boundaries, frontiers in a changing world (pp. 25-42). Sweeden: CERGU. Retrieved from https://www.gu.se/sites/default/files/2020-12/Whither%20Europe-bok.pdf
Eatwell, R. (Ed.). (1997). Europe of the ‘nation-states’? Concepts and theories. In R. Eatwell (Ed.). European political cultures: conflict or convergence? (pp. 233-251). London, UK: Routledge.

Eichengreen, B. (2018). The populist temptation: economic grievance and political reaction in the modern era. London, UK: Oxford University Press.
Elbirlik, T., & Karabulut, F. (2015). Söylem kuramları: bir sınıflandırma çalışması. Dil Araştırmaları, 9(17), 31-50.
European Commission. (2024, October 1, Last Update). Strategic framework for the EU’s cultural policy. Retrieved from https://culture-ec-europa-eu.translate.goog/policies/strategic-framework-for-the-eus-cultural-policy?_x_tr_sl=en&_x_tr_tl=tr&_x_tr_hl=tr&_x_tr_pto=tc
European Commission. (2025, May 20, Last Update). EU competences in the field of culture. Retrieved from https://culture.ec.europa.eu/policies/eu-competences-in-the-field-of-culture
Gevrek, M. (2020). Avrupa’da artan popülizm: Macaristan ve Polonya örnekleri (Unpublished Master Thesis). Niğde Halis Demir Üniversitesi, Niğde.
Green, D. M. (1999). Who are the Europeans?: the European political identity in the context of the post-war integration project (Doctoral thesis), Graduate School of the University of Wisconsin-Madison). Bell & Howell Information and Learning Company.
Guiso, L., Herrera, H., Morelli, M., & Sonno, T. (2024). Economic insecurity and the demand for populism in Europe. Economica, 91(362), 588-620. https://doi.org/10.1111/ecca.12513
Güvenç, B. (1984). İnsan ve kültür (4th ed.). Ankara: Remzi Kitabevi.
Habermas, J. (2001). Why Europe needs a constitution. New Left Review, 11, 5-26. Retrieved from https://newleftreview.org/issues/ii11/articles/jurgen-habermas-why-europe-needs-a-constitution
Hawkins, K. A., Read, M., & Pauwels, T. (2017). Populism and its causes. In C. Rovira Kaltwasser, P. A. Taggart, P. Ochoa Espejo, & P. Ostiguy (Eds.). The Oxford handbook of populism (pp. 267-286). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780198803560.013.13
Inglehart, R.F., & Norris, P. (2016). Trump, Brexit, and the rise of populism: economic have-nots and cultural backlash (HKS Working Paper No. RWP16-026). Harvard University, John F. Kennedy School of Government. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2818659
Kaltwasser, R. C., Taggart, P., Espejo, P. O., & Ostiguy, P. (Eds.). (2017). The Oxford handbook of populism. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Koyuncu, A. (2011). Levi-Stratuss yapısalcılığı. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, (26), 253-262.
Köroğlu, B. (2023, January 20). Avrupa’da aşırı sağın yükselişi ve bir siyasi transformasyon örneği olarak İtalya. TASAM. Retrieved from https://tasam.org/Files/Icerik/File/Avrupa%E2%80%99da_A%C5%9F%C4%B1r%C4%B1_Sa%C4%9F%C4%B1n_Y%C3%BCkseli%C5%9Fi_ve_Bir_Siyasi_Transformasyon_%C3%96rne%C4%9Fi_olarak_%C4%B0talya_pdf_8e179108-1dc6-4e2f-b057-166670ae255a.pdf
Kriesi, H., & Schulte-Cloos, J. (2020). Support for radical parties in Western Europe: structural conflicts and political dynamics. Electoral Studies, (65), 102138, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102138
Laclau, E. (2005). On populist reason. London, UK: Verso.
Lévi-Strauss, C. & Eribon. D. (1991). Conversations with Claude Lévi-Strauss. P. Wissing, Trans., Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (1995). Hüzünlü dönenceler. Ö. Bozkurt, Trans., (2nd ed.). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (2007). Irk, tarih ve kültür. H. Bayrı, R. Erdem, A. Oyacıoğlu & I. Ergüden, Trans., (4th ed.). İstanbul: Metis Yayınları.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (2010). Yaban düşünce. T. Yücel, Trans., (6th ed.). İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (2012). Yapısal antropoloji. A. Kahiloğulları, Trans., Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
Lévi-Strauss, C. (2013). Mit ve anlam. G. Y. Demir, Trans., (2nd ed.). İstanbul: Ithaki Yayınları.
Mayer, F. C., & Palmovski, J. (2004). European identities and the EU: the ties that bind the peoples of Europe. Journal of Common Market Studies, 42(3), 573-598. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.0021-9886.2004.00519.x
Moffitt, B. (2016). The global rise of populism: performance, political style, and representation. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvqsdsd8
Mudde, C. (2004). The populist zeitgeist. Government and Opposition, 39(4), 541-563. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2004.00135.x
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2013). Exclusionary vs. ınclusionary populism: comparing contemporary Europe and Latin America. Government and Opposition, 48(2), 147–174. https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2012.11
Mudde, C., & Rovira Kaltwasser, C. (2017). Populism: a very short introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Müller, J.-W. (2017). Popülizm nedir? O. Yıldız, Trans., (4th ed.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
Nar, M. Ş. (2014). Yapısalcılık kavramına antropolojik bir yaklaşım: Levi-Strauss ve yapısalcılık. Antropoloji, (27), 29-46. https://doi.org/10.1501/antro_0000000225
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2019). Cultural backlash: Trump, Brexit, and authoritarian populism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
O’Leary, Z. (2017). The essential guide to doing your research project. (3rd ed.). London: Sage Publications Inc.
Özel, S. (2009). Avrupa Birliği’nde görsel-işitsel politikaların kültürel temellerine bir bakış. Erciyes Üniversitesi İletişim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1(1), 136-162.
Rodrik, D. (2018). Populism and the economics of globalization. Journal of International Business Policy, 1, 12–33. https://doi.org/10.1057/s42214-018-0001-4
Ruchet, O. (2011). Cultural diversity, European identity and legitimacy of the EU: a review of the debate. In D. Fuchs & H.-D. Klingemann (Eds.). Cultural diversity, European identity and the legitimacy of the EU (pp. 3-26). Social Science Research Center Berlin: Edward Elgar Publishing. https://doi.org/10.4337/9780857938084
Sak, R., Şahin Sak, İ. T., Öneren Şendil, Ç., & Nas, E. (2021). Bir araştırma yöntemi olarak doküman analizi. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Eğitim Dergisi, 4(1), 227-250. https://doi.org/10.33400/kuje.843306
Saylan, İ. (2025). Avrupa’da popülist radikal sağ ve kültür savaşları: İtalya’nın Kardeşleri Partisi örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi, 80(1), 135-158. https://doi.org/10.33630/ausbf.1462131
Serdar, A., Öztürk, E., & Giritli Nygren, K. (2023). A typology of right-wing populism in Europe: intersections of gender, religion and secularity. Women’s Studies International Forum, 97. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wsif.2023.102680
Şimşek, C. Z. (2024). Lévi-Strauss’un antropolojik yaklaşımında batı medeniyeti eleştirisi. Akademik Tarih ve Düşünce Dergisi, 11(5), 3091-3110. https://doi.org/10.46868/atdd.2024.809
T.C. Cumhurbaşkanlığı Strateji ve Bütçe Başkanlığı (1998). Avrupa Birliği bütçesi-fonları ve Türkiye’nin tam üyeliği. Retrieved from https://sbb.gov.tr/wp- content/uploads/2018/11/Avrupa_Birligi_Butcesi_Fonlari_ve_Turkiyenin_Tam_Uyeligi.pdf
Taggart, P. (2000). Populism. Buckingham, UK: Open University Press.
Turan, İ. (1986). Siyasal sistem ve siyasal davranış. (3rd ed.). İstanbul: Der Yayınları.
Uğurlu, A. (2014). Claude Lévi-Strauss’ta mitos. insan ve toplum, 4(7), 113-133. http://dx.doi.org/10.12658/human.society.4.7.M0064
Üstel, F. (2021). Kültür politikasına giriş: kavramlar, modeller, tartışmalar. İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları.
Weyland, K. (2001). Clarifying a contested concept: populism in the study of Latin American politics. Comparative Politics, 34(1), 1-22. https://doi.org/10.2307/422412
Wintle, M. (Ed.). (1996). Cultural identity in Europe: shared experience. In M. Wintle (Ed.). Culture and identity in Europe: Perceptions of divergence and unity in past and present (pp. 9-32). Aldershot, UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited.
Wodak, R. (2015). The politics of fear: what right-wing populist discourses mean. London, UK: Sage Publications.
Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2011). Sosyal bilimlerde nitel araştırma yöntemleri. (8th ed.). Ankara: Seçkin Yayıncılık.
Yılmaz, E. A. (2022, September 28). Avrupa’da “aşırı sağ” popülizmi ve yükselen milliyetçilik dalgası. Indyturk. Retrieved from https://www.indyturk.com/node/560996/t%C3%BCrki%CC%87yeden-sesler/avrupada- a%C5%9F%C4%B1r%C4%B1-sa%C4%9F-pop%C3%BClizmi-ve-y%C3%BCkselen-milliyet%C3%A7ilik-dalgas%C4%B1 Yurdusev, A. N. (1997). Avrupa kimliğinin oluşumu ve Türk Kimliği. In A. Eralp (Ed.). Türkiye ve Avrupa (pp. 17-85). Ankara: İmge Kitabevi.
Yücel, T. (1977). Lévi-Strauss üstüne. Birikim Dergisi, 28-29, 58-72. Retrieved from https://birikimdergisi.com/Images/UserFiles/Images/Spot/70/28-29/levi-strauss_ustune_.pdf
Party Programs and Election Manifestos
Alternative für Deutschland. (2016). Grand program for Germany [Grundsatzprogramm für Deutschland]. https://www.afd.de/grundsatzprogramm/
Alternative für Deutschland. (2017). Manifesto for Germany: The Political Programme of the Alternative for Germany. Germany. https://www.afd.de/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/2017-04-12_afd-grundsatzprogramm-englisch_web.pdf
Alternative für Deutschland. (2025). Programme of the Alternative for Germany for the Election to the 21st German Bundestag. Germany. https://www.afd.de/wahlprogramm25/
CHEGA. (2021). Political Programme of CHEGA [Programa Político 2021]. Portugal. https://partidochega.pt/index.php/programa_politico/
CHEGA. (2022). Constitutional Revision Proposal [Projecto de Revisão Constitucional]. n.º 1/XV/1ª . Portugal. https://partidochega.pt/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/revisao.pdf
CHEGA. (n.d.). Declaration of Principles and Purposes [Declaração de Princípios e Fins]. Portugal. https://partidochega.pt/index.php/declaracao-principios/
CHEGA. (n.d.). Founding Political Manifesto [Manifesto Político Fundador]. Portugal. https://partidochega.pt/index.php/manifesto/
CHEGA. (n.d.). National Emergency and Salvation Plan [Plano de Emergência e Salvação Nacional]. Portugal. https://partidochega.pt/index.php/documentoschega/
Fidesz. (2010). The national cooperation program [A Nemzeti Együttműködés Nyilatkozata]. Hungary. https://www.fidesz.hu/dokumentumtar
Fidesz. (2021). Hungarian civic alliance. [Magyar Polgári Szövetség] Hungary. https://www.fidesz.hu/dokumentumtar
Fidesz. (2024). Patriotic manifesto for the future of Europe [Patrióta kiáltvány az európai jövőért]. Hungary. https://www.fidesz.hu/dokumentumtar
Fratelli d’Italia. (2022). Center-Right program 2022 [Programma Centrodestra 2022] Italy. https://www.fratelli-italia.it/programma/
Fratelli d’Italia. (2022). Fratelli d’Italia program 2022. [Programma Fratelli d’Italia 2022], Italy. https://www.fratelli-italia.it/programma/
Fratelli d’Italia. (2024). Programme for the 2024 European elections. [EUROPEE 2024 PROGRAMMA] Italy. https://www.fratelli-italia.it/programma/
Fratelli d’Italia. (2024). Two years of the Meloni government [anni di Governo Meloni]. Rome, Italy. https://www.fratelli-italia.it/
Rassemblement National. (2022). France entreprend project by Marine Le Pen [La France Entreprend Projet de Marine Le Pen]. France. https://rassemblementnational.fr/conseil-national
Rassemblement National. (2024). 2024 legislative election program [Programme pour les élections européennes du 9 juin 2024]. France. https://rassemblementnational.fr/conseil-national
Rassemblement National. (2024). Internal regulations of the National Rally [Règlement intérieur du Rassemblement National]. France. https://rassemblementnational.fr/reglement-interieur-du-rassemblement-national
Rassemblement National. (2024). Statutes of the National Rally [Statuts du Rassemblement National]. France. https://rassemblementnational.fr/statuts-du-rassemblement-national
Sverigedemokraterna. (2022). Sweden democrats election platform 2022 [Sverigedemokraternas Valplattform 2022]. Sweden. https://sd.se/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/sverigedemokraternas-valplattform-2022-april.pdf
Sverigedemokraterna. (2023). Principle program 2023 [Principprogram 2023]. Sweden. https://www.sd.se/wp-content/uploads/2024/01/sverigedemokraternas-principprogram-2023.pdf
Sverigedemokraterna. (2024). Election manifesto: European Parliament elections 2024 [Valmanifest: Europaparlamentsvalet 2024]. Sweden. https://snd.se/en/vivill/party/sd/v_eu/2024

Details

Primary Language

English

Subjects

European and Region Studies, Political Science (Other)

Journal Section

Research Article

Authors

Laçin Akyıl ^*
0000-0001-7816-3131
Türkiye

Emre Aydilek
0000-0002-4767-2424
Türkiye

Alihan Pasin
0000-0003-2847-6214
Türkiye

Early Pub Date

October 2, 2025

Publication Date

September 25, 2025

Submission Date

March 25, 2025

Acceptance Date

June 16, 2025

Published in Issue

Year 2025 Number: 119

DOI

https://doi.org/10.36484/liberal.1665348

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA45UK25YE

APA

Akyıl, L., Aydilek, E., & Pasin, A. (2025). Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, 119, 267-294. https://doi.org/10.36484/liberal.1665348

AMA

1.Akyıl L, Aydilek E, Pasin A. Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi. 2025;(119):267-294. doi:10.36484/liberal.1665348

Chicago

Akyıl, Laçin, Emre Aydilek, and Alihan Pasin. 2025. “Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture”. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, nos. 119: 267-94. https://doi.org/10.36484/liberal.1665348.

EndNote

Akyıl L, Aydilek E, Pasin A (September 1, 2025) Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi 119 267–294.

IEEE

[1]L. Akyıl, E. Aydilek, and A. Pasin, “Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture”, Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, no. 119, pp. 267–294, Sept. 2025, doi: 10.36484/liberal.1665348.

ISNAD

Akyıl, Laçin - Aydilek, Emre - Pasin, Alihan. “Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture”. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi. 119 (September 1, 2025): 267-294. https://doi.org/10.36484/liberal.1665348.

JAMA

1.Akyıl L, Aydilek E, Pasin A. Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi. 2025;:267–294.

MLA

Akyıl, Laçin, et al. “Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture”. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi, no. 119, Sept. 2025, pp. 267-94, doi:10.36484/liberal.1665348.

Vancouver

1.Laçin Akyıl, Emre Aydilek, Alihan Pasin. Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture. Liberal Düşünce Dergisi. 2025 Sep. 1;(119):267-94. doi:10.36484/liberal.1665348

Avrupa Birliği’nde Aşırı Sağın Yükselişini Anlamak: Siyasi Kültür Üzerine Lévi-Straussçu Bir Perspektif

Abstract

Keywords

Understanding the Rise of the Far Right in the European Union: A Lévi-Straussian Perspective on Political Culture

Abstract

Keywords

Ethical Statement

References

Details

Primary Language

Subjects

Journal Section

Authors

Early Pub Date

Publication Date

Submission Date

Acceptance Date

Published in Issue

DOI

IZ

Cite