Empathy as a Determinant of Pro-Social and Antisocial Behaviors: Theoretical Foundations, Measurement Methods, and Behavioral Outcomes

Abstract

Empathy is the ability to understand the feelings and thoughts of others and to react to them appropriately. Therefore, it has an important role in strengthening interpersonal relationships and supporting social cohesion. Cognitive empathy involves understanding another person's point of view, while emotional empathy involves experiencing what they feel. In this study, the definition of empathy, its components, measurement methods and its relationship with pro-social and antisocial behaviours are discussed. Empathy is measured by self-report scales, behavioural methods and neuroimaging techniques. Empathy affects pro-social and antisocial behaviours both directly and indirectly through biopsychosocial (personality traits, emotion regulation skills) and biological factors. On the other hand, the strength of this relationship may differ depending on demographic factors -such as age, gender-. The use of different measurement techniques together in the studies and more experimental and longitudinal studies as a method can be listed as points that will strengthen future studies. In addition, the close relationship between empathy and these behaviours emphasises the importance of multidisciplinary studies involving different fields such as sociology, psychology and economics.

Keywords

• Empathy
• pro-social behaviour
• antisocial behaviour
• measurement methods
• demographical factors
• biological factors

Toplum Yanlısı ve Antisosyal Davranışların Belirleyicisi Olarak Empati: Kuramsal Temeller, Ölçüm Yöntemleri ve Davranışsal Sonuçlar

Öz

Empati, başkalarının duygu ve düşüncelerini anlama ve bunlara uygun şekilde tepki verme yeteneğidir. Bu nedenle bireyler arası ilişkileri güçlendirme ve sosyal uyumu destekleme konusunda önemli bir role sahiptir. Bilişsel empati, başkasının bakış açısını anlamayı; duygusal empati ise onun hissettiklerini deneyimlemeyi içerir. Bu çalışmada empatinin tanımı, bileşenleri, ölçüm yöntemleri ve toplum yanlısı ile antisosyal davranışlarla olan ilişkisi ele alınmaktadır. Empatinin ölçümü öz-bildirim ölçekleri, davranışsal yöntemler ve nörogörüntüleme teknikleri ile gerçekleştirilmektedir. Empati toplum yanlısı ve antisosyal davranışlara hem direkt hem de biyopsikososyal (kişilik özellikleri, duygu düzenleme becerileri gibi) ve biyolojik etmenler aracılığıyla dolaylı olarak etki etmektedir. Diğer taraftan demografik etkenlere (yaş, cinsiyet gibi) bağlı olarak bu ilişkinin gücü farklılaşabilmektedir. Araştırmalarda farklı ölçüm tekniklerin bir arada kullanılması; yöntem olarak deneysel ve boylamsal çalıșmalara daha çok yer verilmesi gelecek çalışmaları güçlendirecek noktalar olarak sıralanabilir. Ayrıca empatinin bu davranışlarla olan yakın ilişkisi sosyoloji, psikoloji ve ekonomi gibi farklı alanların dahil olacağı multidisipliner çalışmaların önemine vurgu yapmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Empati
• toplum yanlısı davranış
• antisosyal davranış
• ölçüm yöntemleri
• demografik etmenler
• biyolojik etmenler

References

1. Althaus M, Groen Y, van der Schaft L, Minderaa RB, Tucha O, Mulder LJM et al. (2014) Sex differences in orienting to pictures with and without humans: evidence from the cardiac evoked response and the cortical long latency parietal positivity. PLoS One, 9:e108224.
2. Álvarez-García D, González-Castro P, Núñez J, Rodríguez C, Cerezo R (2019) Impact of family and friends on antisocial adolescent behavior: the mediating role of impulsivity and empathy. Front Psychol, 10:2071.
3. Al-Yaaribi A, Kavussanu M (2017) Teammate prosocial and antisocial behavior predict task cohesion and burnout: the mediating role of affect. J Sport Exerc Psychol, 39:199–208.
4. Azeredo A, Figueiredo P, Ramião E, Moreira D, Barroso R, Barbosa F (2023) Reference values regarding measure of Basic Empathy Scale in forensic adolescents. Prof Psychol Res Pract, 54:60–69.
5. Banissy MJ, Kanai R, Walsh V, Rees G (2012) Inter-individual differences in empathy are reflected in human brain structure. Neuroimage, 62:2034–2039.
6. Baron-Cohen S, Wheelwright S (2004) The empathy quotient: an investigation of adults with Asperger’s syndrome or high functioning autism, and normal sex differences. J Autism Dev Disord, 34:163–175.
7. Batson C, Dyck JL, Brandt JR, Batson JG, Powell AL, McMaster MR et al. (1988) Five studies testing two new egoistic alternatives to the empathy-altruism hypothesis. J Pers Soc Psychol, 55:52-77.
8. Batson C, Batson J, Slingsby J, Harrell K, Peekna H, Todd R (1991) Empathic joy and the empathy-altruism hypothesis. J Pers Soc Psychol, 61:413–426.

9. Beadle JN, Sheehan AH, Dahlben B, Gutchess AH (2013) Aging, empathy, and prosociality. J Gerontol B Psychol Sci Soc Sci, 70:213–222.
10. Beattie A, Durham J, Harvey J, Steele J, McHanwell S (2011) Does empathy change in first- year dental students? Eur J Dent Educ, 16:e47–e54.
11. Bellucci G, Camilleri J, Eickhoff S, Krueger F (2020) Neural signatures of prosocial behaviors. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 118:186–195.
12. Blair RJR (2005) Responding to the emotions of others: dissociating forms of empathy through the study of typical and psychiatric populations. Conscious Cogn, 14:698–718.
13. Blair RJR (2008) Empathy, moral development, and callous-unemotional traits. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 18:166–170.
14. Blair RJR (2010) Neuroimaging of psychopathy and antisocial behavior: a targeted review. Curr Psychiatry Rep, 12:76–82.
15. Bora E, Baysan-Arabacı L (2009) Empati ölçeği Türkçe formunun üniversite öğrencilerinde psikometrik özellikleri. Klin Psikofarmakol Bülteni, 19:39–47.
16. Brown S, Harkins L, Beech AR (2012) General and victim-specific empathy: associations with actuarial risk, treatment outcome, and sexual recidivism. Sex Abuse, 24:411– 430.
17. Bumbach MD, Culross BA, Datta SK (2022) Assessing the financial sustainability of high- fidelity and virtual reality simulation for nursing education: a retrospective case analysis. Comput Inform Nurs, 40:615–623.
18. Burleson BR (2003) Emotional support skills. In Handbook of Communication and Social Interaction Skills (Eds Bryant J, Zillmann D):551–595. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum.
19. Cardona-Isaza A (2023) Empathy and prosocial behavior in adolescent offenders: the mediating role of rational decisions. Sage Open, 13:doi: 10.1177/21582440231202844.
20. Caruso DR, Mayer JD (1998) The Multidimensional Emotional Empathy Scale. https://scholars.unh.edu/personality_lab/21 (Accessed 01.08.2025).
21. Chang S, Tillem S, Benson-Williams C, Baskin-Sommers A (2021) Cognitive empathy in subtypes of antisocial individuals. Front Psychiatry, 12:677975.
22. Chirico A, Scurati G, Maffi C, Huang S, Graziosi S, Ferrise F et al. (2020) Designing virtual environments for attitudes and behavioral change in plastic consumption: a comparison between concrete and numerical information. Virtual Real, 25:107–121.
23. Choi S, Cho YI (2013) Influence of psychological and social factors on bystanders’ roles in school bullying among Korean-American students in the United States. Sch Psychol Int, 34:67–81.
24. Cikara M, Bruneau EG, Saxe RR (2011) Us and them: intergroup failures of empathy. Curr Dir Psychol Sci, 20:149–153.
25. Cohen D (1998) Culture, social organization, and patterns of violence. J Pers Soc Psychol, 75:408–420.
26. Colman AM (2009) A Dictionary of Psychology. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
27. Colman I, Murray J, Abbott RA, Maughan B, Kuh D, Croudace TJ et al. (2009) Outcomes of conduct problems in adolescence: 40 year follow-up of national cohort. BMJ, 338:b201.
28. Courtright KE, Mackey DA, Packard SH (2005) Empathy among college students and criminal justice majors: identifying predispositional traits and the role of education. J Crim Justice Educ, 16:125–144.
29. Cuff BM, Brown SJ, Taylor L, Howat DJ (2016) Empathy: a review of the concept. Emot Rev, 8:144–153.
30. Czap NV, Czap HJ, Burbach ME, Lynne GD (2014) Gender in environmental context: an effect of property rights, fines, and empathy nudging. Int J Econ Financ, 6:11–23.
31. Davis MH (1980) A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy. In JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology, vol 10 :85. Washington DC, American Psychological Association.
32. Decety J, Jackson PL (2004) The functional architecture of human empathy. Behav Cogn Neurosci Rev, 3:71–100.
33. Decety J, Lamm C (2006) Human empathy through the lens of social neuroscience. ScientificWorldJournal, 6:1146–1163.
34. Decety J, Moriguchi Y (2007) The empathic brain and its dysfunction in psychiatric: implications for intervention across different clinical conditions. BioPsychoSocial Med, 1:22.
35. Decety J, Meyer M (2008) From emotion resonance to empathic understanding: a social developmental neuroscience account. Dev Psychopathol, 20:1053–1080.
36. Decety J, Michalska KJ (2010) Neurodevelopmental changes in the circuits underlying empathy and sympathy from childhood to adulthood. Dev Sci, 13:886–899.
37. Decety J (2011) Dissecting the neural mechanisms mediating empathy. Emot Rev, 3:92–108.
38. Di Lorenzo R, Girone A, Panzera N, Fiore G, Pinelli M, Venturi G et al. (2021) Empathy and perceived burden in caregivers of patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders. BMC Health Serv Res, 21:556.
39. Duradoni M, Gursesli M, Fiorenza M, Donati A, Guazzini A (2023) Cognitive empathy and the Dark Triad: a literature review. Eur J Investig Health Psychol Educ, 13:2642–2680.
40. Eisenberg N, Miller P (1987) The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors. Psychol Bull, 101:91–119.
41. Eisenberg N, Spinrad TL (2014) Multidimensionality of prosocial behavior: rethinking the conceptualization and development of prosocial behavior. In Prosocial Development: A Multidimensional Approach, (Eds Padilla-Walker LM, Carlo G):17–39. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
42. Engeler A, Yargıç Lİ (2007) Kişilerarası tepkisellik indeksi: Empatinin çok boyutlu ölçümü. Yeni Symposium, 45:119–127.
43. Errasti J, Amigo I, Villadangos M (2017) Emotional uses of Facebook and Twitter: its relation with empathy, narcissism, and self-esteem in adolescence. Psychol Rep, 120:997–1018.
44. Espejo-Siles R, Zych I, Llorent VJ (2020) Empathy, social and emotional competencies, bullying perpetration and victimization as longitudinal predictors of somatic symptoms in adolescence. J Affect Disord, 271:145–151.
45. Fairchild G, Goozen S, Calder A, Goodyer I (2013) Research review: evaluating and reformulating the developmental taxonomic theory of antisocial behaviour. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 54:924–940.
46. Fan Y, Duncan NW, De Greck M, Northoff G (2011) Is there a core neural network in empathy? an fMRI based quantitative meta-analysis. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 35:903–911.
47. Farrington DP (2007) Childhood risk factors and risk-focused prevention. In The Oxford Handbook of Criminology, 4th ed. (Eds Maguire M, Morgan R, Reiner R):602–640. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
48. Ferretti F, Pozza A, Carabellese F, Schimmenti A, Santoro G, Mandarelli G et al. (2021) Non-intimate relationships and psychopathic interpersonal and affective deficit as risk factors for criminal career: a comparison between sex offenders an other offenders. Front Psychol, 12:600370.
49. Finlay KA, Stephan WG (2000) Improving intergroup relations: the effects of empathy on racial attitudes. J Appl Soc Psychol, 30:1720–1737.
50. Frick PJ, White SF (2008) Research review: the importance of callous-unemotional traits for developmental models of aggressive and antisocial behavior. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 49:359–375.
51. Frith U, Frith CD (2003) Development and neurophysiology of mentalizing. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 358:459–473.
52. Galinsky AD, Moskowitz GB (2000) Perspective-taking: decreasing stereotype expression,stereotype accessibility, and in-group favoritism. J Pers Soc Psychol, 78:708–724.
53. Geer JH, Estupinan LA, Manguno-Mire GM (2000) Empathy, social skills, and other relevant cognitive processes in rapists and child molesters. Aggress Violent Behav, 5:99–126.
54. Gerdes KE, Segal EA, Lietz CA (2010) Conceptualising and measuring empathy. Br J Soc Work, 40:2326–2343.
55. Gill K, Calkins S (2003) Do aggressive/destructive toddlers lack concern for others? behavioral and physiological indicators of empathic responding in 2-year-old children. Dev Psychopathol, 15:55–71.
56. Gini G, Albiero P, Benelli B, Altoe G (2007) Does empathy predict adolescents' bullying and defending behavior? Aggress Behav, 33:467-476.
57. González HG (2017) Introducing educational intervention about empathy and intercultural bias. In Empathy: An Evidence-Based Interdisciplinary Perspective (Ed M Kondo):63-78. London, Intech.
58. Hall JA, Schwartz R (2019) Empathy present and future. J Soc Psychol, 159:225-243.
59. Hein G, Singer T (2008) I feel how you feel but not always: The empathic brain and its modulation. Curr Opin Neurobiol, 18:153-158.
60. Heller A, Greischar L, Honor A, Anderle M, Davidson R (2011) Simultaneous acquisition of corrugator electromyography and functional magnetic resonance imaging: a new method for objectively measuring affect and neural activity concurrently. Neuroimage, 58:930-934.
61. Hepach R, Warneken F (2018) Editorial overview: Early development of prosocial behavior: Revealing the foundation of human prosociality. Curr Opin Psychol, 20:iv-viii.
62. Hilbig B, Zettler I, Moshagen M, Heydasch T (2013) Tracing the path from personality-via cooperativeness-to conservation. Eur J Pers, 27:319-327.
63. Hilgard J, Weinberg A, Proudfit G, Bartholow B (2014) The negativity bias in affective picture processing depends on top-down and bottom-up motivational significance. Emotion, 14:940-949.
64. Hodges SD, Biswas-Diener R (2007) Balancing the empathy expense account: Strategies for regulating empathic response. In Empathy in Mental Illness (Eds TFD Farrow, PWR Woodruff):389-407. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
65. Hoffman M (2000) Empathy and Moral Development: Implications For Caring and Justice. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
66. Hogan R (1969) Development of an empathy scale. J Consult Clin Psychol, 33:307-316.
67. Hogan V, Hogan M, Hodgins M (2016) A study of workaholism in irish academics. Occup Med, 66:460-465.
68. Islam T, Ali G, Asad H (2019) Environmental csr and pro-environmental behaviors to reduce environmental dilapidation. Manag Res Rev, 42:332-351.
69. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP (2004) Empathy and offending: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Aggress Violent Behav, 9:441-476.
70. Jolliffe D, Farrington D (2005) Development and validation of the basic empathy scale. J Adolesc, 29:589-611.
71. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP (2011) Is low empathy related to bullying after controlling for individual and social background variables? J Adolesc, 34:59-71.
72. Jolliffe D, Farrington DP (2021) Measuring empathy using the Basic Empathy Scale. In Empathy versus Offending, Aggression and Bullying: Advancing Knowledge Using the Basic Empathy Scale (Eds. D Jolliffe, DP Farrington):1–7. London, Routledge.
73. Khachaturyan M, Czap NV (2016) Different strokes for different folks: Gender and emotions in an environmental game. Sustain Agric Res, 5:81-93.
74. Kim KJ, Lee J, Choi MJ (2024) Effect of infection control simulation based on a negative pressure isolation room using mixed reality. Comput Inform Nurs, 42:608-617.
75. Knafo A, Zahn-Waxler C, Van Hulle C, Robinson JL, Rhee SH (2008) Thedevelopmental origins of a disposition toward empathy: Genetic and environmental contributions. Emotion, 8:737-752.
76. Korkmaz S, Hacıkeleşoğlu H (2021) Prososyallik, empatik eğilim ve dindarlık arasındaki ilişkiler üzerine bir araştırma. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 50:535-569.
77. Krebs D (1982) Prosocial behavior, equity, and justice. In Equity and Justice in Social Behavior (Eds J Greenberg, RL Cohen):261-308. New York, Academic Press.
78. Lamm C, Decety J, Singer T (2011) Meta-analytic evidence for common and distinct neural networks associated with directly experienced pain and empathy for pain. Neuroimage, 54:2492-2502.
79. Lampert B, Unterrainer C, Seubert C (2019) Exhausted through client interaction detached concern profiles as an emotional resource over time? PLoS One, 14:e0216031.
80. Leeming E, Hayes S (2016) Parents are people too: the importance of parental psychological flexibility. Clin Psychol Sci Pract, 23:158-160.
81. Lenzi M, Sharkey J, Vieno A, Mayworm A, Dougherty D, Nylund-Gibson K (2015) Adolescent gang involvement: The role of individual, family, peer, and school factors in a multilevel perspective. Aggress Behav, 41:386-397.
82. Lévy J, Yirmiya K, Goldstein A, Feldman R (2019) The neural basis of empathy and empathic behavior in the context of chronic trauma. Front Psychiatry, 10:562.
83. Li N, Li Q (2022) The effect of family atmosphere on chinese college students’ prosocial behavior: the chained mediation role of gratitude and self-efficacy. Front Psychol, 13:796927.
84. Li R (2018) College students’ interpersonal relationship and empathy level predict internet altruistic behavior—empathy level and online social support as mediators. Psychol Behav Sci, 7:1-7.
85. Lipps T (1903) Einfühlung, innere Nachahmung, und Organempfindungen [Empathy, inner imitation, and physical sensation]. Arch Psychol, 1:185-204.
86. Little C, Solomonova E, Jordan M, Klein N, Jennings B, Schmidtmann G et al. (2023) The discrimination of self from other as a component of empathy. Emotion, 23:1773.
87. Liu R (2023) The relationship between empathic deficits and risk of antisocial personality disorder. J Educ Humanit Soc Sci, 8:152-157.
88. Lockwood PL, Seara-Cardoso A, Viding E (2014) Emotion regulation moderates the association between empathy and prosocial behavior. PLoS One, 9:e96555.
89. Lucas GM, Knowles ML, Gardner WL, Molden DC, Jefferis VE (2010) Increasing social engagement among lonely individuals: the role of acceptance cues and promotion motivations. Pers Soc Psychol Bull, 36:1346-1359.
90. Luo YL (2018) Neural mechanisms of empathy and prosocial behavior. Psychol Rev, 125:473-494.
91. Mackenzie S (2006) Situationally edited empathy: an effect of socio-economic structure on individual choice. Crit Criminol, 14:365-385.
92. May J (2011) Egoism, empathy, and self–other merging. South J Philos, 49, 25-39.
93. McLaren V, Vanwoerden S, Sharp C (2019) The basic empathy scale: factor structure and validity in a sample of inpatient adolescents. Psychol Assess, 31:1208–1219.
94. Mehrabian A (1996) Pleasure-arousal-dominance: a general framework for describing and measuring individual differences in temperament. Curr Psychol, 14:261-292.
95. Mitsopoulou E, Giovazolias T (2015) Personality traits, empathy and bullying behavior: a meta-analytic approach. Aggress Violent Behav, 21:61-72.
96. Morrison E (2006) Doing the job well: an investigation of pro-social rule breaking. J Manag, 32:5-28.
97. Muzumdar J (2016) An overview of comic books as an educational tool and implications for pharmacy. Innov Pharm, 7(4):1.
98. Newton NC, Bussey K (2012) The age of reason: an examination of psychosocial factors involved in delinquent behaviour. Leg Criminol Psychol, 17:75-88.
99. Nguyen-Van P, Stenger A, Tiet T (2021) Social incentive factors in interventions promoting sustainable behaviors: a meta-analysis. PLoS One, 16:e0260932.
100. O’Malley AJ, Arbesman S, Steiger DM, Fowler JH, Christakis NA (2012) Egocentric social network structure, health, and pro-social behaviors in a national panel study of Americans. PLoS One, 7:e36250.
101. Osman M, Lv J, Proulx M (2018) Can empathy promote cooperation when status and money matter? Basic Appl Soc Psychol, 40:201-218.
102. Oliphant Z, Jaynes C, Moule R (2020) Social preferences and environmental behavior: a comparison of self-reported and observed behaviors. Sustainability, 12:6023.
103. Önal A, Rapp M, Sebold M, Garbusow M, Chen H, Kuitunen-Paul S et al. (2021) Empathy and the ability to experience one's own emotions modify the expression of blatant and subtle prejudice among young male adults. J Psychiatr Res, 137:471-479.
104. Park K, Kim D, Kim S, Yi Y, Jeong J, Chae J et al. (2015) The relationships between empathy, stress and social support among medical students. Int J Med Educ, 6:103- 108.
105. Penner L, Dovidio J, Piliavin J, Schroeder D (2005) Prosocial behavior: multilevel perspectives. Annu Rev Psychol, 56:365-392.
106. Pertz M, Braunwarth JI, Steinbach J, Wißing S, Thoma P (2022) Social problem solving and trait socioemotional abilities in ambulatory stroke patients. J Clin Exp Neuropsychol, 44:195-209.
107. Pino M, Masedu F, Vagnetti R, Attanasio M, Giovanni C, Valenti M et al. (2020) Validity of social cognition measures in the clinical services for autism spectrum disorder. Front Psychol, 11:4.
108. Pollerhoff L, Stietz J, Depow GJ, Inzlicht M, Kanske P, Li SC, Reiter AM et al. (2022) Investigating adult age differences in real-life empathy, prosociality, and well-being using experience sampling. Sci Rep, 12:34-50.
109. Prot S, Gentile D, Anderson C, Suzuki K, Swing E, Lim K et al. (2013) Long-term relations among prosocial-media use, empathy, and prosocial behavior. Psychol Sci, 25:358-368.
110. Qin G, Xie R, Wang D, Wu W, Wan S, Li W (2022) The relationship between empathy and school adjustment of left-behind children: the mediating role of coping styles. Front Psychol, 13:883718.
111. Rathje S, Hackel L, Zaki J (2021) Attending live theatre improves empathy, changes attitudes, and leads to pro-social behavior. J Exp Soc Psychol, 95:104138.
112. Raza A, Farrukh M, Iqbal M, Farhan M, Wu Y (2021) Corporate social responsibility and employees' voluntary pro‐environmental behavior: the role of organizational pride and employee engagement. Corp Soc Responsib Environ Manag, 28:1104-1116.
113. Rey R, Lazuras L, Casas J, Barkoukis V, Ortega-Ruiz R, Tsorbatzoudis H (2016) Does empathy predicts (cyber) bullying perpetration, and how do age, gender and nationality affect this relationship? Learn Individ Differ, 45:275-281. .
114. Rhee S (2019) Effects of an empathy training program for youth: A meta-analysis.Child Adolesc Soc Work J, 36:39-48.
115. Rizkyanti C, Wahyuni C, Alatas S (2021) Empathy and defender role in bullying at school: student-teacher relationship as mediator. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 19:227-246.
116. Rodriguez C (2013) Analog of parental empathy: association with physical child abuse risk and punishment intentions. Child Abuse Negl, 37:493-499.
117. Romeo R, Knapp M, Scott S (2006) Economic cost of severe antisocial behaviour in children-and who pays it. Br J Psychiatry, 188:547-553.
118. Romero-Martínez Á, Lila M, Moya-Albiol L (2016) Empathy impairments in intimate partner violence perpetrators with antisocial and borderline traits: A key factor in the risk of recidivism. Violence Vict, 31:347-360.
119. Rowe D, Kaufman J (2023) The show must go on: functional, quality, and possible needs for theater and the creative arts. Possibility Studies & Society, 1:113-117.
120. Rütgen M, Pletti C, Tik M, Kraus C, Pfabigan D, Sladky R et al. (2019) Antidepressant treatment, not depression, leads to reductions in behavioral and neural responses to pain empathy. Transl Psychiatry, 9:e496.
121. Shirtcliff E, Vitacco M, Graf A, Gostisha A, Merz J, Zahn-Waxler C (2009) Neurobiology of empathy and callousness: implications for the development of antisocial behavior. Behav Sci Law, 27:137-171.
122. Sinclair S, Beamer K, Hack TF, McClement S, Raffin Bouchal S, Chochinov HM et al. (2017) Sympathy, empathy, and compassion: A grounded theory study of palliative care patients' understandings, experiences, and preferences. Palliat Med, 31:437- 447.
123. Singer T (2006) The neuronal basis and ontogeny of empathy and mind reading: review of literature and implications for future research. Neurosci Biobehav Rev, 30:855-63.
124. Singer T, Seymour B, O’Doherty J, Kaube H, Dolan RJ, Frith CD (2004) Empathy for pain involves the affective but not sensory components of pain. Science, 303:1157–1162.
125. Sivaratnam C, Cornish K, Gray K, Howlin P, Rinehart N (2012) Brief report: assessment of the social-emotional profile in children with autism spectrum disorders using a novel comic strip task. J Autism Dev Disord, 42:2505-2512.
126. Smith A (2002) The Theory of Moral Sentiments. Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
127. Smith K, Norman G, Decety J (2017) The complexity of empathy during medical school training: evidence for positive changes. Med Educ, 51:1146-1159.
128. Smith K, Norman G, Decety J (2019) Medical students’ empathy positively predicts charitable donation behavior. J Posit Psychol, 15:734-742.
129. Smith-Flores AS, Bonamy GJ, Powell LJ (2023) Children’s reasoning about empathy and social relationships. Open Mind, 7:837-854.
130. Spanierman L, Poteat V, Beer A, Armstrong P (2006) Psychosocial costs of racism to whites: Exploring patterns through cluster analysis. J Couns Psychol, 53:434-441.
131. Spinrad TL, Gal DE (2018) Fostering prosocial behavior and empathy in young children. Curr Opin Psychol, 20:40-44.
132. Stanger N, Kavussanu M, Ring C (2017) Gender moderates the relationship between empathy and aggressiveness in sport: the mediating role of anger. J Appl Sport Psychol, 29:44-58.
133. Stanger N, Kavussanu M, McIntyre D, Ring C (2016) Empathy inhibits aggression in competition: The role of provocation, emotion, and gender. J Sport Exerc Psychol, 38:4-14.
134. Steinberg L, Silk JS (2002) Parenting adolescents. In Handbook of parenting Volume 1: Children and Parenting (Eds MH Bornstein:103-134. Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum.
135. Stephan WG, Finlay K (1999) The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. J Soc Issues, 55:729-743
136. Stocks EL, Lishner DA, Waits BL, Downum EM (2011) I’m embarrassed for you: The effectof valuing and perspective taking on empathic embarrassment and empathic concern. J Appl Soc Psychol, 41:1-26.
137. Suazo I, Pérez-Fuentes MDC, Molero Jurado MDM, Martos Martínez Á, Simón Márquez MDM, Barragán Martín AB et al. (2020) Moral sensitivity, empathy and prosocial behavior: Implications for humanization of nursing care. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 17:8914.
138. Telle N, Pfister H (2015) Positive empathy and prosocial behavior: a neglected link. Emotion Rev, 8:154-163.
139. Thau S, Crossley C, Bennett R, Sczesny S (2007) The relationship between trust, attachment, and antisocial work behaviors. Hum Relat, 60:1155-1179.
140. Tillem S, Chang SAA, Baskin-Sommers A (2020) Comparison of socio-affective processing across subtypes of antisocial psychopathology. In The Handbook of The Philosophy and Science of Punishment (Eds F Focquaer, E Shaw, BN Waller):288-302. New York, Routledge.
141. Titchener EB (1909) Lectures on the Experimental Psychology of the Thought Processes. New York NY, Macmillan.
142. Topçu Ç, Erdur-Baker Ö, Çapa-Aydın Y (2010) Temel Empati Ölçeği Türkçe uyarlaması: geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk Psikolojik Danışma Rehberlik Dergisi,4:174-182.
143. Trivedi-Bateman N (2019) The combined roles of moral emotion and moral rules in explaining acts of violence using a situational action theory perspective. J Interpers Violence, 36:17-18.
144. Turan N, Durgun H, Kaya H, Aştı T (2021) Turkish adaptation of the Multidimensional Emotional Empathy Scale: A validity and reliability study. Perspect Psychiatr Care, 57:455-462.
145. Utomo K (2022) Investigations of cyber bullying and traditional bullying in adolescents on the roles of cognitive empathy, affective empathy, and age. Int J Instr. 15:937-950
146. Vachon D, Lynam D (2015) Fixing the problem with empathy: Development and validation of the affective and cognitive measure of empathy. Assessment, 23:135-149.
147. Van der Graaff J, Carlo G, Crocetti E, Koot HM, Branje S (2018) Prosocial behavior in adolescence: Gender differences indevelopment and links with empathy. J Youth Adolesc, 47:1086-1099.
148. van Hazebroek B, Olthof T, Goossens F (2016) Predicting aggression in adolescence: The interrelation between (a lack of) empathy and social goals. Aggress Behav, 43:204-214.
149. van Noorden THJ, Haselager GJT, Cillessen AHN, Bukowski WM (2015) Empathy and involvement in bullying in children and adolescents: A systematic review. J Youth Adolesc, 44:637-657.
150. van Rijn J, Quiñones EJ, Barham BL (2018) Does Empathic Concern for Children Explain the Gender-Donations Gap? Staff Paper No. 586. Madison, WI; University of Wisconsin-Madison.
151. Vargas E, Delgado A, Torres S, Carrasco-Ribelles L, Marín-Morales J, Raya M (2022) irtual reality stimulation and organizational neuroscience for the assessment of empathy. Front Psychol, 13:993162.
152. Verona E, Bresin K, Patrick CJ (2013) Revisiting psychopathy in women: Cleckley/Hare conceptions and affective response. J Abnorm Psychol, 122:1088-1093.
153. von Dawans B, Trueg A, Voncken M, Dziobek I, Kirschbaum C, Domes G et al. (2022) Empathy modulates the effects of acute stress on anxious appearance and social behavior in social anxiety disorder. Front Psychiatry, 13:875750.
154. Völlm BA, Taylor ANW, Richardson P, Corcoran R, Stirling J, McKie S, et al (2006) Neuronal correlates of theory of mind and empathy: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study in a nonverbal task. NeuroImage, 29:90–98.
155. Wagner U, Handke L, Walter H (2015) The relationship between trait empathy and memory formation for social vs. non-social information. BMC Psychology, 3:2.
156. Wang L, Sheng G, She S, Xu J (2022) Impact of empathy with nature on pro-environmental behaviour. Int J Consum Stud, 47:652-668.
157. Warrier V, Toro R, Chakrabarti B, iPSYCH-Broad Autism Group, Børglum AD, Grove J et al. (2018) Genome-wide analyses of self-reported empathy: correlations with autism, schizophrenia, and anorexia nervosa. Transl Psychiatry, 8:35.
158. Westbury H, Neumann DL (2008) Empathy-related responses to moving film stimuli depicting human and non-human animal targets in negative circumstances. Biol Psychol, 78:66-74.
159. Wiehe VR (2003) Empathy and narcissism in a sample of child abuse perpetrators and a comparison sample of foster parents. Child Abuse Negl, 27:541-555.
160. Wilson H, Stover C, Berkowitz S (2009) Research review: The relationship between childhood violence exposure and juvenile antisocial behavior: a meta-analytic review. J Child Psychol Psychiatry, 50:769-779.
161. Wink M, LaRusso M, Smith R (2021) Teacher empathy and students with problem behaviors: examining teachers' perceptions, responses, relationships, and burnout. Psychol Sch, 58:1575-1596.
162. Winter K, Spengler S, Bermpohl F, Singer T, Kanske P (2017) Social cognition in aggressive offenders: Impaired empathy, but intact theory of mind. Sci Rep, 7:670.
163. Yang Y, Tang Y, Peng W, Lü X, Li H, Chen J (2017) Empathy: The genetics-environment- endocrine-brain mechanism. Chin Sci Bull, 62:3729-3742.
164. Yin Y, Wang Y (2023) Is empathy associated with more prosocial behaviour? A meta‐analysis. Asian J Soc Psychol, 26:3-22.
165. Yuguero O, Rius N, Soler-González J, Esquerda M (2022) Increase of burnout among emergency department professionals due to emotional exhaustion during the Sars cov2 pandemic: evolution from 2016 to 2021. Medicine, 101:e318
166. Yüzbaşıoğlu MK, Kurnaz MA (2023) Deep relationship between the “Haha!” of humor and the “A-ha!” of learning: Context-based comic book development, teacher and student opinions. Journal of Theoretical Educational Sciences, 16:536-573.
167. Zhang H, Gao X, Liang Y, Yao Q, Wei Q (2023) Does child maltreatment reduce or increase empathy? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence Abuse, 25:166-182.
168. Zhao Y, Liu R, Zhang J, Luo J, Zhang W (2020) Placebo effect on modulating empathic pain: reduced activation in posterior insula. Front Behav Neurosci, 14:8.
169. Zych I, Farrington D, Nasaescu E, Jolliffe D, Twardowska-Staszek E (2020) Psychometric properties of the basic empathy scale in polish children and adolescents. Curr Psychol, 41:1957-1966.
170. Zych I, Ortega-Ruiz R, Marín-López I (2016). Cyberbullying: a systematic review of research, its prevalence and assessment issues in Spanish studies. Psicol Educ (Madr), 22:5- 18.
171. Zych I, Ttofi MM, Farrington DP (2019) Empathy and callous–unemotional traits in different bullying roles: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Trauma Violence Abuse, 20:3-21.