Beden İmgesi ve İlişkili Psikolojik Kavramlar Üzerine Sistematik Bir Derleme: Etnik Köken Önemli midir?

Öz

Alanyazında sıklıkla çalışılan güncel konulardan biri olan beden imajı, kişinin kendi bedenine yönelik tutumları olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Bu sistematik derleme etnik köken ve beden imajı arasındaki ilişkiyi inceleyen çalışmaları gözden geçirmeyi amaçlamıştır. EBSCO, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, PsycARTICLES ve DergiPark aracılığıyla yapılan ilk alanyazın taramasında toplam 795 çalışma bulunmuştur. Çalışmaya dahil etme kriteri 2010-2021 yılları arasında İngilizce veya Türkçe yazılmış tam metin çalışmalar iken, tarama sürecinde makale formatında olmayan, araştırma odağıyla ilgili olmayan, nitel bir yöntem kullanan ve kültürler arası etnik farklılıklara önem vermeyen çalışmalar derlemeye dahil edilmemiştir. Tarama sonucunda elde edilen 12 çalışma PRISMA kriterlerine göre rapor edilmiştir. Sonuçlara bakıldığında, 6 çalışmaya göre kolektivist toplumlarda yaşayan bireylerin, 3 çalışmaya göre ise bireysel toplumlarda yaşayanların beden memnuniyetsizliğinin daha fazla olduğu görülmüştür. Bu çalışmaların yanı sıra, 1 çalışma sadece kolektivist toplumları karşılaştırmıştır. Ayrıca incelenen 1 çalışmada belirli bir kültüre yönelik farklılıklara dair nihai bir sonuca varılamamışken, 1 çalışmada da bireylerin beden algısında herhangi bir etnik farklılık bulunmamıştır. Derlenen çalışmaların bulgularına genel olarak bakıldığında, kolektivist toplumlarda yaşayan bireylerin beden memnuniyetsizliğinin daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür. Bununla birlikte, ortaya çıkan bulgulara göre kadınlar erkeklerden daha fazla beden memnuniyetsizliği yaşamaktadırlar. Ancak Asya kültürlerinde erkekler batı kültürüne kıyasla daha zayıf beden imajına sahiptirler. Ek olarak, beden imajı ile ilgili ortaya çıkan etnik farklılıklar akran ilişkilerinden etkilenmektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• beden memnuniyetsizliği
• etnik grup
• sistematik derleme
• beden imajı

A Systematic Review of Body Image and Related Psychological Concepts: Does Ethnicity Matter?

Abstract

Body image is defined as one’s own attitudes toward own body, and it is one of the current topics examined in the literature. The aim of this study is to evaluate and systematically review studies about the relationship between ethnicity and body image. A total of 795 studies were found in the initial literature search through EBSCO, PubMed, Wiley Online Library, PsycARTICLES, and DergiPark. Full-text studies written in English and Turkish from 2010 to 2021 were included in the study. During the screening period, studies were excluded that were not in article format, were not relevant to the study focus, used a qualitative method, and showed no importance to the ethnic differences across cultures. After the screening period, 12 studies were selected and reported through PRISMA criteria. Results revealed that 6 studies showed that people from collectivistic cultures showed higher body dissatisfaction; 3 studies showed that people from individualistic cultures showed higher body dissatisfaction; 1 study compared only collectivistic cultures; 1 study did not show conclusive differences toward one culture and 1 study did not find any ethnic differences. General direction of the studies indicated that people from collectivistic cultures have higher body dissatisfaction. Moreover, overall findings suggested that females have more body dissatisfaction than males. However, in Asian cultures males have poorer body images than males from Western cultures. In addition, ethnic differences in body image are influenced by peer-relationship.

Keywords

• body image
• body dissatisfaction
• ethnic groups
• systematic review
• culture

References

1. Aderka IM, Gutner CA, Lazarov A, Hermesh H, Hofmann SG, Marom S (2014) Body image in social anxiety disorder, obsessive–compulsive disorder, and panic disorder. Body Image, 11(1): 51-56.
2. Ata RN, Ludden AB, Lally MM (2007) The effects of gender and family, friend, and media influences on eating behaviors and body image during adolescence. J Youth Adolesc, 36(8): 1024-1037.
3. Baer RD, Arteaga E, Dyer K, Eden A, Gross R, Helmy H et al. (2013) Concepts of race and ethnicity among health researchers: patterns and implications. Ethn Health, 18(2): 211-225.
4. Ball K, Kenardy, J (2002) Body weight, body image, and eating behaviours: Relationships with ethnicity and acculturation in a community sample of young Australian women. Eat Behav, 3(3): 205-216.
5. Beato-Fernández L, Rodríguez-Cano T, Belmonte-Llario A, Martínez-Delgado C (2004) Risk factors for eating disorders in adolescents. Eur Child Adolesc Psychiatry, 13(5): 287-294.
6. Baugh E, Mullis R, Mullis A, Hicks M, Peterson G (2010) Ethnic identity and body image among Black and White college females. J Am Coll Health, 59(2): 105-109.
7. Botta RA (2003) For your health? The relationship between magazine reading and adolescents’ body image and eating disturbances. Sex Roles 2003, 48: 389-99.
8. Brausch AM, Muehlenkamp JJ (2007) Body image and suicidal ideation in adolescents. Body Image, 4(2): 207-212.

9. Brokhoff M, Mussap AJ, Mellor D, Skouteris H, Ricciardelli LA, McCabe MP et al. (2012) Cultural influences on body dissatisfaction, body change behaviours, and disordered eating of Japanese adolescents. Asian J Soc Psychol, 15(4): 238-248.
10. Brockhoff M, Mussap AJ, Fuller‐Tyszkiewicz M, Mellor D, Skouteris H, McCabe MP et al. (2016) Cultural differences in body dissatisfaction: Japanese adolescents compared with adolescents from China, Malaysia, Australia, Tonga, and Fiji Asian J Soc Psychol, 19(4): 385-394.
11. Butters JW, Cash TF (1987) Cognitive-behavioral treatment of women's body-image dissatisfaction. J Consult Clin Psychol, 55(6): 889-897.
12. Byely L, Archibald AB, Graber J, Brooks-Gunn J (2000) A prospective study of familial and social influences on girls’ body image and dieting. Int J Eat Disord, 28: 155-164.
13. Cash TF (2004) Body image: Past, present, and future. Body Image, 1(1): 1-5.
14. Cash TF, Ancis JR, Strachan, MD (1997) Gender attitudes, feminist identity, and body images among college women. Sex Roles, 36(7-8): 433-447.
15. Cash TF, Henry PE (1995) Women’s body images: The results of a national survey in the USA, Sex Roles, 33: 19-28. Cash TF, Winstead BA, Janda LH (1986) The great American Shapeup, Psychol Today, 20: 30-37.
16. Chisuwa N, O’Dea JA (2010) Body image and eating disorders amongst Japanese adolescents. A review of the literature. Appetite, 54(1): 5-15.
17. Chui W, Safer DL, Bryson SW, Agras WS, Wilson GT (2007) A comparison of ethnic groups in the treatment of bulimia nervosa. Eat Behav, 8(4): 485-491.
18. Comstock RD, Castillo EM, Lindsay SP (2004) Four-year review of the use of race and ethnicity in epidemiologic and public health research. Am J Epidemiol, 159(6): 611-619.
19. Crimmins EM, Hayward MD, Seeman TE (2004) Race/ethnicity, socioeconomic status and health. In National Research Council & Committee on Population, Critical Perspectives on Racial and Ethnic Differences in Health in Late Life (Eds. NB Anderson, RA Bulatao, B Cohen): 310-353. Washington DC, National Academics Press.
20. Demarest J, Allen R (2000) Body image: Gender, ethnic, and age differences. J Soc Psychol, 140(4): 465-472.
21. Dixit S, Agarwal GG, Singh JV, Kant S, Singh N (2011) A study on consciousness of adolescent girls about their body image. Indian J Community Med: Official Publication of Indian Association of Preventive & Social Medicine, 36(3): 197-202.
22. Erriu M, Cimino S, Cerniglia L (2020) The Role of Family Relationships in Eating Disorders in Adolescents: A Narrative Review. Behavioral Sciences, 10(4): 71.
23. Fahiz MF (2019) A cross cultural study of body image among adolescents and young adults. IJHW, 10(7-9): 205-216.
24. Fardouly J, Vartanian LR (2016) Social media and body image concerns: Current research and future directions. Curr Opin Psychol, 9: 1-5.
25. Feingold A, Mazzella R (1998) Gender differences in body image are increasing. Psychol Sci, 9(3): 190-195.
26. Forbes GB, Jung J, Vaamonde JD, Omar A, Paris L, Formiga NS (2012) Body dissatisfaction and disordered eating in three cultures: Argentina, Brazil, and the US. Sex Roles, 66(9-10): 677-694.
27. Frayon S, Cavaloc Y, Wattelez G, Cherrier S, Touitou A, Zongo P et al. (2020) Body image, body dissatisfaction and weight status of Pacific adolescents from different ethnic communities: a cross-sectional study in New Caledonia. Ethn Health, 25(2): 289-304.
28. Gibson M (2001) Immigrant adaptation and patterns of acculturation. Hum Dev, 44(1): 19-23.
29. Gonzales IV M, Blashill AJ (2021) Ethnic/racial and gender differences in body image disorders in body image disorders among a diverse sample of sexual minority US adults. Body Image, 36: 64-73.
30. Grogan S (2016) Body Image: Understanding Body Dissatisfaction in Men, Women and Children, 3rd ed. Abingdon, Routledge.
31. Heron KE, Smyth JM, Akano E, Wonderlich SA (2013) Assessing body image in young children: A preliminary study of racial and developmental differences. SAGE Open, 3(1),1-7.
32. Higgins ET (1987) Self-discrepancy: A theory relating self and affect. Psychol Rev, 94: 319-340.
33. Hilbert A, Tuschen-Caffier B (2004) Body image interventions in cognitive-behavioural therapy of binge-eating disorder: a component analysis. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(11): 1325-1339.
34. Holmqvist K, Frisén A (2012) “I bet they aren’t that perfect in reality:” Appearance ideals viewed from the perspective of adolescents with a positive body image. Body Image, 9(3): 388-395.
35. Jones DC (2001) Social comparison and body image: Attractiveness comparisons to models and peers among adolescent girls and boys. Sex Roles, 45(9-10): 645-664.
36. Kim KB, Aubrey JS (2015). A cross-cultural comparison of cognitive and affective mediators in the relationship between media use and body image disturbance: Focusing on US and Korean women. Asian J Commun, 25(5): 507-524.
37. Kimber M, Couturier J, Georgiades K, Wahoush O, Jack SM (2015) Ethnic minority status and body image dissatisfaction: A scoping review of the child and adolescent literature. J Immigr Minor Health, 17(5): 1567-1579.
38. Kogure GS, Ribeiro VB, Lopes IP, Furtado CLM, Kodato S, de Sá MFS et al. (2019) Body image and its relationships with sexual functioning, anxiety, and depression in women with polycystic ovary syndrome. J Affect Disord, 253: 385-393.
39. Lam BC, Mak IN, Walker GA (2010) The role of social beliefs in body image research: A cross-cultural cxamination of Australian and Hong Kong Chinese college women. Journal of Psychology in Chinese Societies, 11(1): 9-28.
40. Liberati A, Altman DG, Tetzlaff J, Mulrow C, Gøtzsche PC, Ioannidis JP et al. (2009). The PRISMA statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses of studies that evaluate health care interventions: Explanation and elaboration. PLoS Medicine, 6(7): 1-28.
41. Littleton HL, Ollendick T (2003) Negative body image and disordered eating behavior in children and adolescents: What places youth at risk and how can these problems be prevented?. Clin Child Fam Psychol, 6(1): 51-66.
42. Maezono J, Hamada S, Sillanmäki L, Kaneko H, Ogura M, Lempinen L et al.(2019) Cross‐cultural, population‐based study on adolescent body image and eating distress in Japan and Finland. Scand J Psychol, 60(1): 67-76.
43. Martin JB (2010) The development of ideal body image perceptions in the United States. Nutr Today, 45(3): 98-110.
44. Mateos P (2007) A review of name‐based ethnicity classification methods and their potential in population studies. Popul Space Place, 13(4): 243-263.
45. Mellor D, Hucker A, Waterhouse M, binti Mamat NH, Xu X, Cochrane J et al. (2014) A cross-cultural study investigating body features associated with male adolescents’ body dissatisfaction in Australia, China, and Malaysia. Am J Men's Health, 8(6): 521-531.
46. Menzel JE, Levine MP (2011) Embodying experiences and the promotion of positive body image: The example of competitive athletics. In Self-objectification in Women: Causes, Consequences, and Counteractions (Eds. RM Calogero, S Tantleff-Dunn, JK Thompson): 163-186. Massachusetts, American Psychological Association. Moher D, Liberati A, Tetzlaff J, Altman DG, Prisma Group (2009) Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Medicine, 6(7): e1000097.
47. Muth JL. Cash TF (1997) Body‐image attitudes: What difference does gender make?. J Appl Soc Psychol, 27(16), 1438-1452.
48. Roberts A, Cash TF, Feingold A, Johnson BT (2006) Are black-white differences in females' body dissatisfaction decreasing? A meta-analytic review. J Consult Clin Psychol, 74(6): 1121-1131.
49. Paxton SJ, Neumark-Sztainer D, Hannan PJ, Eisenberg, ME (2006) Body dissatisfaction prospectively predicts depressive mood and low self-esteem in adolescent girls and boys. J Clin Child Adolesc, 35(4): 539-549.
50. Phinney JS (1989) Stages of ethnic identity development in minority group adolescents. J Early Adolesc, 9(1–2): 34-49.
51. Phinney JS (1990) Ethnic identity in adolescents and adults: review of research. Psychol Bull, 108(3): 1-57.
52. Quittkat HL, Hartmann AS, Düsing R, Buhlmann U, Vocks S (2019) Body dissatisfaction, importance of appearance and body appreciation in men and women over the lifespan. Front Psychiatry, 10: 1-12.
53. Sinh NH (2013) Highly attractive models in advertising: What causes negative affect?. JIBE, 14(1): 31-48.
54. Stice E, Shaw HE (2002) Role of body dissatisfaction in the onset and maintenance of eating pathology: A synthesis of research findings. J Psychosom Res, 53(5): 985-993.
55. Sorter RG (1997) Developmental changes in children's body images. Soc Behav Pers, 12(4): 1019-1036.
56. Swami V, Airs N, Chouhan B, Amparo Padilla Leon M, Towell T (2009) Are there ethnic differences in positive body image among female British undergraduates?. Eur Psychol, 14(4): 288-296.
57. Talwar R, Carter JD, Gleaves DH (2012) New Zealand female body image: What roles do ethnicity and body mass play. New Zeal J Psychol, 41(1): 69-75.
58. Twenge JM, Martin GN, Spitzberg BH (2019) Trends in US Adolescents’ media use, 1976–2016: The rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychol Pop Media Cult, 8(4): 329-345.
59. Tylka TL (2011) Positive psychology perspectives on body image. In Body image: A Handbook of Science, Practice, and Prevention, 2nd ed. (Eds. TF Cash, L Smolak): 56-64. New York, Guilford Press.
60. Van Vonderen KE, Kinnally W (2012) Media effects on body image: Examining media exposure in the broader context of internal and other social factors. Am J Res Commun, 14(2): 41-57.
61. Veale D, Anson M, Miles S, Pieta M, Costa A, Ellison N (2014) Efficacy of cognitive behaviour therapy versus anxiety management for body dysmorphic disorder: a randomised controlled trial. Psychother Psychosom, 83(6): 341-353.
62. Verplanken B, Velsvik R (2008) Habitual negative body image thinking as psychological risk factor in adolescents. Body Image, 5(2): 133-140.
63. Weingarden H, Marques L, Fang A, LeBlanc N, Buhlmann U, Phillips KA et al. (2011) Culturally adapted cognitive behavioral therapy for body dysmorphic disorder: case examples. Int J Cogn, 4(4): 381-396.
64. Wilson RE, Latner JD, Hayashi K (2013) More than just body weight: The role of body image in psychological and physical functioning. Body Image, 10(4): 644-647.
65. Yamamiya Y, Cash TF, Melnyk SE, Posavac HD, Posavac SS (2005) Women's exposure to thin-and-beautiful media images: Body image effects of media-ideal internalization and impact-reduction interventions. Body Image, 2(1): 74-80.
66. Yates A, Edman J, Aruguete M (2004) Ethnic differences in BMI and body/self-dissatisfaction among Whites, Asian subgroups, Pacific Islanders, and African-Americans. J Adolesc Health, 34(4): 300-307.
67. Yilmaz Y, Bozo Ö (2019) Whose gaze is more objectifying? An experimental study of college women’s state self-objectification, body shame, negative mood, and body dissatisfaction. Mediterr J Clin Psychol, 7(2): 1-23.