21. Yüzyılda Çocukları ve Gençleri Bekleyen Siber Riskler

Abstract

Çağımızda bilgi ve iletişim teknolojilerinin hızlı gelişmesiyle birlikte dijital iletişim araçları olarak tanımlanan akıllı telefon, tablet, bilgisayar ve internet günlük yaşamımızın vazgeçilmezleri haline gelmiştir. Çocuk ve gençler, yetişkinlere kıyasla bu dijitalleşmeye daha çabuk uyum sağlayarak kullanım sıklığında yüksek bir seviyeye ulaşmışlardır. Dijitalleşme, çocuk ve gençlere öğrenme fırsatlarını genişletme, bilgiye ulaşma, kendilerini ifade etme, aile/arkadaşlıkla sosyal bağları devam ettirme için özgürleştirici bir yol sunarken, aynı zamanda dijital ortamın tehlikeli ve karanlık tarafıyla da karşı karşıya bırakmaktadır. Bu makale ile dijital uygulamaların çocuk ve gençler için ne tür riskler içerdiğini, bu uygulamalar üzerinden zorbalık ve mağduriyetle sonuçlanan siber risklerin neler olduğunu ve bu risklere maruz kalmanın ruh sağlığına etkilerini incelemek amaçlanmıştır. Makalenin ebeveynler, eğitimciler ve ruh sağlığı uzmanlarının farkındalıklarının artmasına; çocuk ve gençlerin ruh sağlığını koruyucu ve önleyici yaklaşımların geliştirilerek uygulanmasına katkı sağlayacağı düşünülmektedir.

Keywords

• çocuk
• genç
• dijitalleşme
• siber risk

Cyber Risks Awaiting Children and Young People in the 21st Century

Abstract

Nowadays, with the rapid development of information and communication technologies, smart phones, tablets, computers and the Internet, which are defined as digital media tools, have become indispensable and essential tools in our daily life practices. Children and young people have adapted themselves to this digitalization period more quickly than adults, and perform a high level of frequency of use. While digitalization offers children and young people a liberating way to expand their learning opportunities, access information, express themselves, and maintain social connections with family/friends, it also poses threats coming from the dangerous and dark side of the digital environment. The present study aims to examine the risks of digital applications for children and young people, what the cyber risks that result in bullying and victimization are, and the effects of exposure to these cyber risks on mental health. Raising the awareness of parents, educators and mental health professionals will contribute to develop and apply the protective and preventive mental health approaches for children and young people.

Keywords

• Children
• youth
• digitalization
• cyber risks

References

1. 1-Abarbanel B, Johnson MR (2020). Gambling engagement mechanisms in Twitch live streaming, International Gambling Studies, 20(3): 393-413. http://doi.org/ 10.1080/14459795.2020.1766097
2. 2-Ahorsu DK, Lin CY, Imani V, Saffari M, Griffiths MD, Pakpour AH (2020). The fear of COVID-19 scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1-9. http://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8
3. 3-Anderson J, Rainie L (2018). The future of well-being in a tech-saturated. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/04/17/concerns-about-the-future-of-peoples-well-being/ (13 Mart 2021’de ulaşıldı)
4. 4-Anderson M (2018). A majority of teens have experienced some form of cyberbullying. Pew Research Center. https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/09/27/a-majority-of-teens-have-experienced-some-form-of-cyberbullying/ (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
5. 5-Appel H, Gerlach AL, Crusius J (2016). The interplay between Facebook use, social comparison, envy, and depression. Current Opinion in Psychology, 9:44-49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2015.10.006.
6. 6-Ardıç Çobaner A (2018). Facebook’ta çocuk benliğinin sunumu: Çocukların Facebook profil ve paylaşımları üzerine bir analiz. Uluslararası Dijital Çağda İletişim Sempozyumu. 18-19 Ekim, 21-32 2018. Mersin, Türkiye.
7. 7-Aytekin G. (2017). Dijital oyunlar ve bireyler üzerindeki etkileri. https://www.guvenliweb.org.tr/blog-detay/dijital-oyunlar-ve-bireyler-uzerindeki-etkileri (13.03.2021’de ulaşıldı).
8. 8-Baker CK, Carreño PK (2016). Understanding the role of technology in adolescent dating and dating violence. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 25(1):308–320. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10826-015-0196-5

9. 9-Banerjee D (2020). The COVID-19 outbreak: Crucial role the psychiatrists can play. Asian journal of psychiatry, 50, 102014. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102014
10. 10-Baştürk Akça E, Sayımer İ (2017). Siber zorbalık kavramı, türleri ve ilişkili olduğu faktörler: mevcut araştırmalar üzerinden bir değerlendirme. AJIT-e: Bilişim Teknolojileri Online Dergisi, 8 (30):7-19.
11. 11-Bates S (2017). Revenge porn and mental health: A qualitative analysis of the mental health effects of revenge porn on female survivors. Feminist Criminology, 12(1):22–42. https://doi.org/10.1177/1557085116654565
12. 12-Berman T, Deutsch G (2010). Inside ‘Catfish’: A tale of twisted cyber-romance. ABC News. https://abcnews.go.com/2020/catfish-movie-tale-twisted-cyberromance/story?id=11817470 (04.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
13. 13-Bilgiz S, Peker A (2020). Ergenlerde kişisel ve çevresel faktörlerin siber zorbalık davranışını yordaması. Cumhuriyet Uluslararası Eğitim Dergisi, 9 (2):430-447..
14. 14-Borca G, Bina M, Keller PS, Gilbert LR, Begotti T (2015). Internet use and developmental tasks: Adolescents’ point of view. Computers in Human Behavior, 52:49–58. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.029
15. 15-Bourdeaudhuij I. (2016). From normative influence to social pressure: How relevant others affect whether bystanders join in cyberbullying. Social Development, 25(1): 193–211. https://doi.org/10.1111/sode.12134
16. 16-Bryant K, Sheldon P (2017). Cyber dating in the age of mobile apps: Understanding motives, attitudes, and characteristics of users. American Communication Journal, 19(2):1–15.
17. 17-Brown C, Hegarty K (2018). Digital dating abuse measures: A critical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 40:44–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2018.03.003
18. 18-Cava MJ, Tomás I, Buelga S, Carrascosa L (2020). Loneliness, depressive mood and cyberbullying victimization in adolescent victims of cyber dating violence. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(12):4269. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17124269
19. 19-Cengiz Saltuk M, Erciyes C (2020). Okul öncesi çocuklarda teknoloji kullanımına ilişkin ebeveyn tutumlarına dair bir çalışma. Yeni Medya Elektronik Dergisi, 4 (2):106-120.
20. 20-Cihan M, Yıldız S (2020). Sosyal medya aracılığı ile işlenen suçlar: Facebook, Twitter ve Instagram örnekleri. Kırıkkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(1): 135-150.
21. 21-Cihangir Çankaya Z (2009). Özerklik desteği, temel psikolojik ihtiyaçların doyumu ve öznel iyi olma: Öz-belirleme kuramı. Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi, 4 (31): 23-31
22. 22-Charles S (2019). Social media linked to rise in mental health disorders in teens, survey finds. NBC News. https://www.nbcnews.com/health/mental-health/social-media-linked-rise-mental-health-disorders-teens-survey-finds-n982526
23. 23-Coluccia A, Pozza A, Ferretti F, Carabellese F, Masti A, Gualtieri G (2020). Online romance scams: Relational dynamics and psychological characteristics of the victims and scammers. A Scoping Review. Clinical Practice & Epidemiology in Mental Health, 16(1): 24–35. https://doi.org/10.2174/1745017902016010024
24. 24-Cosma A, Walsh SD, Chester KL, Callaghan M, Molcho M, Craig W et.al. (2020). Bullying victimization: Time trends and the overlap between traditional and cyberbullying across countries in Europe and North America. International Journal of Public Health, 65(1):75–85. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00038-019-01320-2
25. 25-Cox J (2018). TikTok, the app super popular with kids, has a nudes problem. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/j5zbmx/tiktok-the-app-super-popular-with-kids-has-a-nudes-problem (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı).
26. 26-Çalışkan M (2019). Suç korkusu kullanılarak, telefon aracılığıyla gerçekleştirilen dolandırıcılık vakaları (2017-2018): “İstanbul Örneği” . Medeniyet Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4 (1):29-42.
27. 27-Derzakarian A (2017). The dark side of social media romance: Civil recourse for catfish victims. Loyola Law Review, 50(4):741–764.
28. 28-Drouin M, Landgraff C (2012). Texting, sexting, attachment, and intimacy in college students’ romantic relationships. Computers in Human Behavior, 28(2):444–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.10.015
29. 29-Dursun S, Gökçe A, Aytaç S (2020). Siber zorbalık: üniversite öğrencileri üzerine bir araştırma. International Journal of Social Inquiry, 13 (2):465-485. http://doi.org/10.37093/ijsi.837694
30. 30-Elmalı F (2020). Sosyal ağ siteleri: Ergenler, riskler ve tehditlerden korunma stratejileri. Bolu Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20 (1): 439-453.
31. 31-Ell K (2017). FBI says internet romance scams on the rise. Here’s what you need to know. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/money/2017/07/20/fbi-says-internet-romance-scams-rise/485311001/
32. 32-Espelage DL, Hong JS (2017). Cyberbullying prevention and intervention efforts:Current knowledge and future directions. The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, 62(6):374–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0706743716684793
33. 33-Erol M, Erol, A (2020). Koronavirüs pandemisi sürecinde ebeveynleri gözünden ilkokul öğrencileri. Millî Eğitim Dergisi, 49(1):529-551. http://doi.org/10.37669/milliegitim.766194
34. 34-Feiner L, Rodriguez S (2019). Mark Zuckerberg: Facebook spends more on safety than Twitter’s whole revenue for the year. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2019/05/23/facebook-fake-account-takedowns-doubled-q4-2018-vs-q1-2019.html
35. 35-Finkelhor D (2016). The aftermath of sextortion. https://www.nationalchildrensalliance.org/the-aftermath-of-sextortion/ (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı).
36. 36-Francisco Luz Nunes Queiroz AA, Lopes de Sousa ÁF, Evangelista de Araújo TM., Milanez de Oliveira FB, Batista Moura ME, Reis RK. (2017). A review of risk behaviors for hıv ınfection by men who have sex with men through geosocial networking phone apps. J Assoc Nurses AIDS Care, 28(5):807-818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jana.2017.03.009.
37. 37-Giordano PC, Kaufman AM, Manning WD, Longmore MA (2015). Teen dating violence: The influence of friendships and school context. Sociological Focus, 48(2):150–171. https://doi.org/10.1080/00380237.2015.1007024
38. 38-Greenhow C, Lewin C (2016). Social media and education: Reconceptualizing the boundaries of formal and informal learning. Learning, Media and Technology, 41(1):6–30. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2015.1064954
39. 39-Greer N, Rockloff M, Browne M, Hing N, King DL (2019). Esports betting and skin gambling: A brief history. Journal of Gambling Issues, 43. https://dx.doi.org/10.4309/jgi.2019.43.8
40. 40-Gökel Ö (2020). Teknoloji bağımlılığının çeşitli yaş gruplarındaki çocuklara etkileri hakkındaki ebeveyn görüşleri . Kıbrıs Türk Psikiyatri ve Psikoloji Dergisi, 2 (1):41-47. https://doi.org/10.35365/ctjpp.20.2.6
41. 41-Günlü A, Ceyhan AA (2017). Investigating adolescents’ behaviors on the internet and problematic internet usage. Addicta: The Turkish Journal on Addictions, 4:75–117. https://dx.doi.org/10.15805/addicta.2017.4.1.0016
42. 42-Güvendi B, Tekkurşun Demir G, Keskin B (2019). Ortaokul öğrencilerinde dijital oyun bağımlılığı ve saldırganlık . OPUS Uluslararası Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11(18):1194-1217. https://doi.org/10.26466/opus.547092
43. 43-Henley J (2013). Are teenagers really careless about online privacy? The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2013/oct/21/teenagers-careless-aboutonline-Privacy. (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
44. 44-Hooft Graafland J (2018). New technologies and 21st century children: Recent trends and outcomes. OECD Education Working Papers, No. 179, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e071a505-en
45. 45-Hoffmeister T (2014). The challenges of preventing and prosecuting social media crimes. Pace Law Review, 35(1):115–134.
46. 46-Hawdon J, Bernatzky C, Costello M (2019). Cyber-routines, political attitudes, and exposure to violence-advocating online extremism, social forces, 98(1): 329–354. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/soy115
47. 47-Hazar Z, Demir G, Namlı S, Türkeli A (2017). Ortaokul öğrencilerinin dijital oyun bağımlılığı ve fiziksel aktivite düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 11 (3):320-332.
48. 48-Islam M, Sujan SH, Tasnim R, Sikder T, Potenza MN, Van Os J (2020). Psychological responses during the COVID-19 outbreak among university students in Bangladesh. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/cndz7
49. 49-Jhaveri A (2015). Faking it — Scammers’ tricks to steal your heart and money. https://www.consumer.ftc.gov/blog/2015/07/faking-it-scammers-tricks-steal-your-heart-and-money?page=14 (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
50. 50-Joshi SV, Stubbe D, Li STT, Hilty DM (2019). The use of technology by youth: Implications for psychiatric educators. Academic Psychiatry, 43(1):101-109. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40596-018-1007-2
51. 51-Karlsson ME, Temple JR, Weston R, Le VD (2016). Witnessing interparental violence and acceptance of dating violence as predictors for teen dating violence victimization. Violence Against Women, 22(5):625–646. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077801215605920
52. 52-Kaygısız E. (2020). Şiddetin e-hali: Siber zorbalık. Türkiye İnsan Hakları ve Eşitlik Kurumu Akademik Dergisi, Şiddetin Önlenmesi Özel Sayısı:161-174. Keleş B, McCrae N, Grealish A (2020) A systematic review: The influence of social media on depression, anxiety and psychological distress in adolescents, International Journal of Adolescence and Youth, 25(1):79-93. https://doi.org/10.1080/02673843.2019.1590851
53. 53-Koch CM (2017). To catch a catfish: A statutory solution for victims of online impersonation. University of Colorado Law Review, 88(1):233–280.
54. 54-Kowalski RM, Giumetti GW, Schroeder AN, Lattaner MR (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140 (4):1073–1137.
55. 55-Kosenko K, Luurs G, Binder AR. (2017). Sexting and sexual behavior, 2011–2015:A critical review and meta-analysis of a growing literature. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 22(3):141–160. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12187
56. 56-Kozakiewicz A. (2020). http://www.aliciaproject.org/about-alicia-kozakiewicz.html (05.03.2021’nde ulaşıldı)
57. 57-Lauckner C, Truszczynski N, Lambert D, Kottamasu V, Meherally S, Schipani-McLaughlin et al. (2019). “Catfishing,” cyberbullying, and coercion: An exploration of the risks associated with dating app use among rural sexual minority males.Journal of Gay & Lesbian Mental Health, 23(3):289–306. https://doi.org/10.1080/19359705.2019.1587729
58. 58-Livingstone S (2016). Gençliğe ilişkin içerik oluşturmada riskli fırsatları değerlendirmek-Ergenlerin mahremiyet, gizlilik ve kendilerini ifade etmek için sosyal ağ sitelerini kullanmaları. Yeni medya kullanıcının yükselişi (Ed. H. Hülür, C. Yaşin), 85-107: Ankara, Ütopya Yayınevi.
59. 59-Lohmann RC (2017). 5 reasons teens sext. U.S. News. https://health.usnews.com/wellness/for-parents/articles/2017-05-18/5-reasons-teens-sext
60. 60-Macapagal K, Moskowitz DA, Li DH, Carrión A, Bettin E, Fisher CB et al. (2018). Hookup app use, sexual behavior, and sexual health among adolescent men who have sex with men in the United States. Journal of Adolescent Health, 62(6):708–715. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.01.001
61. 61-Macey J, Hamari J (2019). Sports, skins and loot boxes: Participants, practices and problematic behaviour associated with emergent forms of gambling. New Media & Society, 21(1):20–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444818786216
62. 62-Machimbarrena JM, Calvete E, Fernández-González L, Álvarez-Bardón A, Álvarez-Fernández L, González-Cabrera J (2018). Internet risks: An overview of victimization in cyberbullying, cyber dating abuse, sexting, online grooming and problematic internet use. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 15(11): 2471. https://doi.or/10.3390/ijerph15112471
63. 63-Mckinlay T, Lavis T (2020). Why did she send it in the first place? Victim blame in the context of ‘revenge porn’, Psychiatry, Psychology and Law, 27:3, 386-396. https://doi.org/10.1080/13218719.2020.1734977
64. 64-Machackova H (2020). Bystander reactions to cyberbullying and cyberaggression: individual, contextual, and social factors. Current Opinion in Psychology, 36:134-136. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2020.06.003
65. 65-McGlynn C, Rackley E Houghton R (2017). Beyond ‘Revenge Porn’: The continuum of image-based sexual abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, 25: 25–46.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-017-9343-2
66. 66-Miller E, Jones KA, McCauley HL (2018). Updates on adolescent dating and sexual violence prevention and intervention. Current Opinion in Pediatrics, 30(4):466–471. http://doi.org/10.1097/MOP.0000000000000637
67. 67-Mishra S, Mishra A, Rawat R (2015). A study of impact of social media on college students. International Journal of Research in Commerce & Management, 6(12):27–34.
68. 68-Mori C, Cooke JE, Temple JR, Ly A, Lu Y, Anderson N et al. (2020). The prevalence of sexting behaviors among emerging adults: A meta-analysis. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 49(4):1103–1119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10508-020-01656-4
69. 69-Mosley MA, Lancaster M, Parker ML, Campbell K (2020). Adult attachment and online dating deception: A theory modernized. Sexual and Relationship Therapy, 35(2): 227–243. https://doi.org/10.1080/14681994.2020.1714577
70. 70-Nielsen L, Grabarczyk P. (2018). Are Loot Boxes Gambling? Random reward mechanisms in video games. Teoksessa Proc DiGRA.
71. 71-Nixon CL (2014). Current perspectives: The impact of cyberbullying on adolescent health. Adolescent Health, Medicine and Therapeutics, 5:143–158. https://doi.org/10.2147/AHMT.S36456
72. 72-Oğuz R (2018). Sanal Ortamdaki Nefret Söylemi Hakkında Çocuklarınızla Konuşun! https://dijitalmedyavecocuk.bilgi.edu.tr/2018/12/25/sanal-ortamdaki-nefret-soylemi-hakkinda-cocuklarinizla-konusun/ (12.03.2021’de ulaşıldı).
73. 73-Okkay I (2019). Dijital Oyunların Çocuklar Üzerinde Yol Açtığı Etiksel Sorunlar. Yeni medyada çocuk ve iletişim (Ed. Ali Murat Kırık): 115-141.Çizgi Kitabevi.
74. 74-Orben A (2020). Teenagers, screens and social media: A narrative review of reviews and key studies. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 55(4):407–414. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-019-01825-4
75. 75-O’Malley RL, Holt KM (2020). Cyber sextortion: An exploratory analysis of different perpetrators engaging in a similar crime. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520909186
76. 76-Özdemı̇r B, Yıldırım G (2019). Dijitalleşen ı̇letişim ortamlarında kimlik ı̇nşası ve benlik sunumu: İletişim fakültesi öğrencileri üzerine bir araştırma, Yeni Medya Elektronik Dergisi, 3(3):178-191.
77. 77-Quintana-Orts C, Rey L, Neto F (2020). Beyond cyberbullying: Investigating when and how cybervictimization predicts suicidal ideation. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260520913640
78. 78-Paat YF, Markham C, Peskin M (2019). Psycho-emotional violence, its association, co-occurrence, and bidirectionality with cyber, physical and sexual violence. Journal of Child & Adolescent Trauma, 13:365-380. http://doi.org/10.1007/s40653-019-00283-z
79. 79-Paat YF, Markham C, Peskin M (2020). Digital crime, trauma, and abuse: Internet safety and cyber risks for adolescents and emerging adults in the 21st century. Social Work in Mental Health, 1-23. http://doi.org/10.1080/15332985.2020.1845281
80. 80-Patchin JW, Hinduja S (2020). Sextortion among adolescents: Results from a national survey of U.S. youth. Sexual Abuse: A Journal of Research and Treatment, 32(1):30–54. https://doi.org/10.1177/1079063218800469
81. 81-Peebles E (2014). Cyberbullying: Hiding behind the screen. Paediatrics & Child Health, 19(10):527–528. https://doi.org/10.1093/pch/19.10.527
82. 82-Pereira F, Spitzberg B, Matos M (2016). Cyber-harassment victimization in Portugal: Prevalence, fear and help-seeking among adolescents. Computers in Human Behavior, 62: 136-146.
83. 83-Peters S, Salzieder H (2018). What makes you swipe right?: Gender similarity in interpersonal attraction in a simulated online dating context. Psi Chi Journal of Psychological Research, 23(4):320–330. https://doi.org/10.24839/2325-7342.JN23.4.320
84. 84-Phillips O (2018). The App That Exposes Teens to Catcalls and Harassment. https://onezero.medium.com/the-app-that-exposes-teens-to-catcalls-and-harassment-tiktok-musically-d98be52c6ff1 (14.03.2021’de ulaşıldı).
85. 85-Powell A, Henry N, Flynn A, Scott AJ (2019). Image-based sexual abuse: The extent, nature, and predictors of perpetration in a community sample of Australian adults. Advance online publication. Computers in Human Behavior, 92: 393-402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.11.009
86. 86-Przbylski AK, Deci EL, Rigby CS, Ryan RM. (2014). Competence-impeding electronic games and players’ aggressive feelings, thoughts, and behaviors. J Pers Soc Psychol, 106(3):441–457. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034820.
87. 87-Roth PL, Bobko P, Van Iddekinge CH, Thatcher JB. (2016). Social media in employee-selection-related decisions: A research agenda for uncharted territory. Journal of Management, 42(1):269–298. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206313503018
88. 88-Reed LA, Tolman RM, Ward LM. (2017). Gender matters: Experiences and consequences of digital dating abuse victimization in adolescent dating relationships. Journal of Adolescence, 59:79–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.05.015
89. 89-Reed LA, Ward LM, Tolman RM, Lippman JR, Seabrook RC (2018). The association between stereotypical gender and dating beliefs and digital dating abuse perpetration in adolescent dating relationships. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260518801933
90. 90-Reyns BW, Burek MW, Henson B, Fisher BS (2013). The unintended consequences of digital technology: Exploring the relationship between sexting and cybervictimization. Journal of Crime and Justice, 36(1): 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/0735648X.2011.641816
91. 91-Ross JM, Drouin M, Coupe A (2019). Sexting coercion as a component of intimate partner polyvictimization. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 34(11):2269–2291. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260516660300
92. 92-Sabella RA, Patchin JW, Hinduja S (2013). Cyberbullying myths and realities. Computers in Human Behavior, 29(6):2703–2711. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2013.06.040
93. 93-Samur Y. (2019). Yeni Bildiriminiz Var, İstanbul, Nemesis Yayınları.
94. 94-Schulz A, Bergen E, Schuhmann P, Hoyer J, Santtila P (2016). Online sexual solicitation of minors: How often and between whom does it occur? Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 53(2): 165–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022427815599426
95. 95-Schleifer J, Letter AB (2018). “Just one more turn!” Why kids love video games and why adults worry about them. The Brown University Child and Adolescent Letter, 34(9):1–6.
96. 96-Semenza DC (2019). Gender differences in the victim-offender relationship for on-and-offline youth violence. Journal of Interpersonal Violence. https://doi.org/10.1177/0886260519864358
97. 97-Shaari AH, Kamaluddin MR, Fauzi WFP, Mohd M (2019). Online-dating romance scam in Malaysia: An analysis of online conversations between scammers and victims. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 19(1): 97–115. https://doi.org/10.17576/gema-2019-1901-06
98. 98-Skilbred-Fjeld S, Reme SE, Mossige S (2020). Cyberbullying involvement and mental health problems among late adolescents. Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychosocial Research on Cyberspace, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.5817/CP2020-1-5
99. 100-Slonje R., Smith PK (2007). Cyberbullying: Another main type of bullying? Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49:147-154.
100. 101-Springston KM (2017). Gender differences in participation in and motivations for sexting:The effects of gender role attitudes, masculinity, and femininity. Butler Journal of Undergraduate Research, 3(9):142-157.
101. 102-Subrahmanyam K, Greenfield P (2008). Online communication and adolescent relationships. The Future of Children, 18(1):119-146.
102. 103-Sussman CJ, Harper JM, Stahl JL, Weigle P (2017). Internet and video game addictions: Diagnosis, epidemiology, and neurobiology. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am, 27(2): 307– 326. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2017.11.015.
103. 104-Sütlüoğlu T (2015). Sosyal paylaşım ağlarında gençlerin sosyalleşme ve kimlik inşası süreçleri: Facebook örneği. Folklor/Edebiyat, (83):125-147.
104. 105-Stonard KE (2020). “Technology was designed for this”: Adolescents’ perceptions of the role and impact of the use of technology in cyber dating violence. Computers in Human Behavior, 105, 106211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2019.106211
105. 106-Toker O (2021). Sokakta karşılaştığın yabancı ile internette tanıştığın yabancı aynı değil! https//www.orhantoker.com
106. 107-Topan A, Kuzlu Ayyıldız T, Özsavran M, Mutlu B. (2020). İlkokul öğrencilerinin bilgisayar, internet kullanımı ve bilgisayar oyunları hakkındaki düşünceleri. Çocuk Dergisi, 20 (1):20-26.
107. 108-Tynes B, Giang M (2009). Online victimization, depression and anxiety among adolescents in the us. European Psychiatry, 24(S1):1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0924-9338(09)70919-8
108. 109-Turgut YE, Kursun E (2020). Mobile internet experiences of the children in Turkey and European countries: A comparative analysis of internet access, use, activities, skills and risks. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 88:225-248. https://doi.org/10.14689/ejer.2020.88.10
109. 110-Tzani-Pepelasi C, Ioannou M, Synnott J, Ashton S (2018). Comparing factors related to school-bullying and cyber-bullying. Crime Psychology Review, 4(1):1–25. https://doi.org/10.1080/23744006.2018.1474029
110. 111-Üstündağ, A (2020). Çocukların sosyal medya kullanım durumları ve sosyal medyanın çocukların duygu durumları üzerine etkisi. Uluslararası Güncel Eğitim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6 (2):286-302.
111. 112-Van Ouytsel J, Torres E, Choi HJ, Ponnet K, Walrave M, Temple JR (2017). The associations between substance use, sexual behaviors, bullying, deviant behaviors, health, and cyber dating abuse perpetration. The Journal of School Nursing, 33(2):116–122. https://doi.org/10.1177/1059840516683229
112. 113-Vanman E (2018). We asked catfish why they trick people online—It’s not about money. https://phys.org/news/2018-07-catfish-people-onlineit-money.html (02.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
113. 114-Vogels EA (2020). 10 facts about Americans and online dating. Pew Research. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/02/06/10-facts-about-americans-and-online-dating/ (01.03.2021’de ulaşıldı)
114. 115-Wachs S, Wright, MF (2019). Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking. 104:300-306.http://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2018.0551
115. 116-Wachs, S, Gámez-Guadix, M, Wright, M.F, Görzig, A, Schubarth, W (2020). “How do adolescents cope with cyberhate? Psycho-metric properties and socio-demographic differences of a coping with cyber-hate scale“. Computers in Human Behavior 104: 106167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104026
116. 117-Wachs MC, Wright MF, Flora K, Daskalou V, Maziridou E, Kwon Y et al. (2021). “DNT LET ’EM H8 U!”: Applying the routine activity framework to understand cyberhate victimization among adolescents across eight countries, Computers & Education, 160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.104026.
117. 118-Wang WC (2019). Exploring the relationship among free-time management, leisure boredom, and ınternet addiction in undergraduates in Taiwan. Psychological Reports, 122(5): 1651–1665. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294118789034
118. 119-Wearesocial, Hootsuite (2020). Digital In 2020 Global Overview. https://wearesocial.com/blog/2020/01/digital-2020-3-8-billion-people-use-social-media https://www.hootsuite.com/resources/digital-2020 (09.03.2021’nde ulaşıldı)
119. 120-Weimann G, Masri N (2020) Research note: Spreading hate on tiktok, studies in conflict & terrorism. https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2020.1780027 Weisskirch RS, Delevi R (2011). “Sexting” and adult romantic attachment. Computers in Human Behavior, 27(5):1697–1701. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2011.02.008
120. 121-Wittes B, Poplin C, Jurecic Q, Spera C (2016). Sextortion: Cybersecurity, teenagers, and remote sexual assault. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/sextortion1-1.pdf
121. 122-Wong-Lo M, Bullock LM, Gable RA (2011). Cyber bullying: Practices to face digital aggression. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 16(3), 317–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2011.595098
122. 123-Wolak J, Finkelhor D (2016). Sextortion: Findings from a survey of 1631 victims. Crime Against Children Research Center. https://www.unh.edu/ccrc/pdf/Sextortion_RPT_FNL_rev0803.pdf
123. 124-Yaman F, Çubukcu PA, Küçükali M, Kabakçı Yurdakul I. (2020). Ortaokul ve lise öğrencilerinin sosyal medya kullanımı ve dijital oyun oynama durumları. Sakarya Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 20 (2):160-174.
124. 125-Yıldız S, Bektaş F. (2021). COVID-19 salgınının çocukların boş zaman etkinliklerinde yarattığı değişimin ebeveyn görüşleriyle değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, 26 (1):99-122.
125. 126-Yücel V (2019). Zararlı dijital oyunlar ve çocuklar. Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6 (7):340-353.
126. 127-Zweig J, Dank M, Yahner J, Lachman P (2013). The rate of cyber dating abuse among teens and how it relates to other forms of teen dating violence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 42(7):1063–1077. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-013-9922