Cinsiyet Temelli Zulme Karşı Uluslararası Hukukta ve Türk Hukukunda Sağlanan Koruma Statüleri

Abstract

1951 tarihli Mültecilerin Hukuki Statüsüne Dair Cenevre Sözleşmesi uluslararası hukuk çerçevesinde şekillenen uluslararası koruma rejiminin bağlayıcı temel kaynağını oluşturmaktadır. Bu nitelik, Sözleşme’ye cinsiyet temelli zulme karşı başvurulacak ilk kaynak olma özelliğini kazandırmakta; mülteci statüsü, cinsiyet temelli zulüm karşısında bireye uluslararası koruma sunan temel araç olmaya devam etmektedir. Ancak 1951 tarihli Cenevre Sözleşmesi’nde öngörülen ölçütlerin normatif temelde genişletilmemiş olması, bireylerin temel hak ve özgürlüklerini güvence altına alan insan hakları sözleşmelerinin nihayetinde özel bir koruma statüsü öngörmemesi, özellikle cinsiyet temelli zulüm karşında mülteci tanımının dışında kalan bireyler için öngörülen ve bu niteliği itibariyle tamamlayıcı olarak adlandırılan statülerin varlığını gerekli kılmıştır. Çalışmada ise bu doğrultuda cinsiyet temelli zulme karşı, uluslararası hukukta ve Türk hukukunda sağlanan koruma statülerine odaklanılmaktadır. Bu kapsamda 1951 tarihli Cenevre Sözleşmesi, 1967 tarihli Mültecilerin Hukuki Statüsüne İlişkin Protokol, Sözleşme ve Protokol’ün uygulanmasına yön vermesi sebebiyle BMMYK uygulamaları ve tamamlayıcı koruma statüsüne yer vermesi sebebiyle Avrupa Birliği Vasıflandırma Direktifi (2011/95/EU) ve Türk mevzuatı çerçevesinde öngörülen koruma rejimleri bakımından değerlendirilmektedir.

Keywords

• 1951 tarihli Mültecilerin Hukuki Statüsüne Dair Cenevre Sözleşmesi
• Cinsiyet Temelli Zulüm
• Mülteci
• Tamamlayıcı Koruma
• Geçici Koruma

Protection Statuses Provided Under International and Turkish Law Against Gender-Based Persecution

Abstract

The 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees constitutes a fundamental binding source within the international protection regime under international law. This qualification makes the Convention the primary legal framework for addressing gender-based persecution, and the refugee status remains the main instrument offering international protection to individuals subjected to such persecution. However, the fact that the criteria stipulated in the Geneva Convention of 1951 have not been expanded normatively and that human rights conventions guaranteeing fundamental rights and freedoms do not specifically establish a distinct protection status has led to the creation of complementary/ subsidiary protection statuses. These are particularly relevant for individuals who fall outside the formal definition of a refugee yet still face gender-based persecution. This study focuses on the protection statuses provided under international law and Turkish law in cases of gender-based persecution. It specifically evaluates the 1951 Geneva Convention, the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, UNHCR practises guiding the implementation of these instruments, and the European Union Qualification Directive (2011/95/EU), which includes complementary protection. These legal frameworks are assessed in the context of Turkish legislation, providing a comprehensive overview of the protection regimes in place.

Keywords

• The 1951 Geneva Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees
• Gender-based Persecution
• Refugee
• Complementary Protection
• Temporary Protection

References

1. Adjin-Tettey E, ‘Reconsidering the Criteria for Assessing Well-Founded Fear in Refugee Law’ (1997) 25(1) Manitoba Law Journal 127-151. google scholar
2. Adjin-Tettey E, ‘Defining a Particular Social Group Based on Gender’, Refuge: Canada’s Journal on Refugees / Refuge: Revue canadienne sur les refugies, (1997) 16(4) Refugee and Immigrant Women: An International Perspective 22-25. google scholar
3. Adofo A, ‘Feeling Persecution: Asylum Claims Related to Sexual Orientation in the United Kingdom and the Netherlands’, Master Thesis in International and European Public Law (Tilburg University 2013). google scholar
4. Aksar Y, Uluslararası Ceza Hukuku (Seçkin Yayıncılık 2022). google scholar
5. Asar A, Yabancılar Hukuku (Temel Konular) (8th edn Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2023). google scholar
6. Arıkan G, Göç Hukukunda Yabancıya Sağlanan Uluslararası, Bölgesel ve Ulusal Koruma (On İki Levha Yayıncılık 2020). google scholar
7. Aydınlı OE, Mülteci Statüsünün Belirli Bir Sosyal Gruba Mensubiyet Nedeniyle Tanınması (Yetkin Yayıncılık 2018). google scholar
8. Aydoğmuş AY, ‘Türk Hukukunda Geçici Korumadan Yararlananların Sınır Dışı Edilmesi’ (2017) 37(2) Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni 141-169. google scholar

9. Bal L, ‘Dâhilî Korunma Alternatifi Yaklaşımı ve Uluslararası Koruma Statüsü’ (2004) 6(1) ASBÜ Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 416-463. google scholar
10. Baran Çelik N, ‘Türk Hukukunda Uluslararası Koruma Başvurusunda Bulunan veya Uluslararası Korumadan Yararlanan Yabancıların Hak ve Yükümlülükleri’ (2015) 6(3) İnönü Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 67-148. google scholar
11. Bayram MH, Avrupa Birliği Hukuku Dersleri, (7th edn Seçkin Yayıncılık 2022). google scholar
12. Can S, Avrupa Birliği Hukuku ve Türk Hukukunda İkincil Koruma (Yetkin 2021). google scholar
13. Bayata Canyaş A, ‘Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Kanunu Kapsamındaki Geri Gönderme Yasağının Uygulanma Koşullarının AİHM Kararları Çerçevesinde İrdelenmesi’ (2015) 5(1) Hacettepe HFD 73-90. google scholar
14. Çelikel A/Öztekin Gelgel G, Yabancılar Hukuku (27th edn, Beta Yayınevi 2022). google scholar
15. Çiçekli B, 6458 Sayılı Kanunla Güncellenmiş Yabancılar ve Mülteci Hukuku (6th edn, Seçkin Yayıncılık 2016). google scholar
16. Çiçekli B, Uluslararası Hukukta Mülteciler ve Sığınmacılar (Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2009). google scholar
17. Çörtoğlu Koca S/Kavşat FC, ‘Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği Uyarınca Geçici Koruma Kararının Kapsamı, Alınması ve Sona Ermesi’ (2015) 1(1) Başkent Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 311-348. google scholar
18. Den Heijer M, Europe and Extraterritorial Asylum (Hart Publishing 2012). google scholar
19. Doğan V, Türk Yabancılar Hukuku (6th edn, Savaş Yayınevi 2021). google scholar
20. Ekşi N, ‘I. Oturum Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Kanunu’nda Düzenlenen Uluslararası Koruma Türleri’, Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Kanununun Değerlendirilmesi, Ceyda Süral/Ekin Ömeroğlu (Eds.) (Seçkin Yayıncılık 2015). google scholar
21. Ekşi N, ‘Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği Uyarınca Geçici Korumanın Şartları, Geçici Koruma Usulü, Sağlanan Haklar ve Geçici Korumanın Sona Ermesi’ (2014) 88(6) İstanbul Barosu Dergisi 65-90. google scholar
22. Ekşi N, Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Hukuku (5th edn, Beta Yayınevi 2018). google scholar
23. Erdem BB, ‘Geçici Koruma Statüsündeki Suriyelilerin Sosyal, Siyasi ve Vatandaşlık Hukuku Bakımından Türkiye’deki Durumları’, (2017) 37(2) Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni 332-351. google scholar
24. Ergüven NS/Özturanlı B, ‘Uluslararası Mülteci Hukuku ve Türkiye’ (2013) 62(4) Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 1007-1062. google scholar
25. Elçin D, ‘Türkiye’de Bulunan Suriyelilere Uygulanan Geçici Koruma Statüsü 2001/55 Sayılı Avrupa Konseyi Yönergesi ile Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği Arasındaki Benzerlik ve Farklılıklar’ (2016) (124) Türkiye Barolar Birliği Dergisi 9-80. google scholar
26. Goodwin-Gill GS, ‘The Haitian Refoulement Case: A Comment’ (1994) 6(1) International Journal of Refugee Law 103-9. google scholar
27. Goodwin-Gill GS, ‘The Language of Protection’ (1989) 6(1) Int’l J. Refugee 6-20. google scholar
28. Hathaway JC, The Law of Refugee Status (Butterworths 1991). google scholar
29. İneli Ciğer M, ‘Silahlı Çatışma Durumlarında Ayrım Gözetmeyen Şiddet Hareketlerinden Kaçan Kişilerin Avrupa Birliği ve Türk Hukukunda İkincil Korunması (2018) 20(1) Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 199-237. google scholar
30. İzmirli LA, ‘Türkiye’deki Suriyelilerin Hukuki Durumuna İlişkin Bir Değerlendirme’ (2017) 4(7), Avrasya Sosyal ve Ekonomi Araştırmaları Dergisi 43-66. google scholar
31. Johnsson AB, ‘International Protection of Women Refugees A Summary of Principal Problems and Issues’ (1989) 1(2) International Journal Refugee Law’ 221-233. google scholar
32. Karagözoğlu C, ‘Non-Refoulement İlkesinin Avrupa İnsan Hakları Sözleşmesi Çerçevesinde Uygulanması’ PPIL, (2023) 43(1) 313-351. google scholar
33. Kelley N, ‘The Convention Refugee Definition and Gender-Based Persecution: A Decade’s Progress’ (2001) 13(4) International Journal of Refugee Law 559- 568. google scholar
34. Kıvılcım Z, ‘Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Kanunu ile Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği: Toplumsal Cinsiyet Perspektifiyle Bir Değerlendirme’ (2016) 71(3) Ankara Üniversitesi SBF Dergisi 919940. google scholar
35. Konyalı G, Uluslararası Hukukta Sığınma Hakkı (Seçkin Yayıncılık 2021). google scholar
36. Kutluhan Bozkurt, Güncel Gelişmelerle Göç Hukuku (2nd edn, Legal Yayıncılık 2022). google scholar
37. Lambert H, ‘The European Convention On Human Rights And The Protection of Refugees: Limits And Opportunities’ (2005) 24(2) Refugee Survey Quarterly 39-55. google scholar
38. Lauterpacht E, Bethlehem D, ‘The scope and content of the principle of non-refoulement: Opinion’, Refugee Protection in International Law- UNHCR’s Global Consultations on International Protection, Erika Feller, Volker Türk, Frances Nicholson (Eds.) (Cambridge University Press 2003). google scholar
39. MacIntosh C, ‘When ‘Feminist Beliefs’ Became Credible as ‘Political Opinions’: Returning to Key Moment in Canadian Refugee Law’ (2005) (17) Canadian Journal of Women and the Law 135-150. google scholar
40. McAdam J, Complementary Protection in International Refugee Law (Oxford University Press, 2007). google scholar
41. Morgan M/Anker D, ‘Obstacles to Entry for Central American Refugees in the US’, States, the Law and Access to Refugee Protection: Fortresses and Fairness, Maria O’Sullivan/Dallal Stevens (Eds.) (Hart Publishing 2017). google scholar
42. Musalo K, ‘Revisiting Social Group and Nexus in Gender Asylum Claims: A Unifying Rationale for Evolving Jurisprudence’ (2003) 52 DePaul L. Rev. 777-808. google scholar
43. Noll G, ‘Delimiting and Justifying Protection under the ECHR’, Negotiating Asylum- The EU Acquis, Extraterritorial Protection and the Common Market of Deflection (The Hague: Kluwer Law International 2000). google scholar
44. Nyknen E, ‘On The Lines of Demarcation and Their Significance - The Categories of Complementary Protection Under The Finnish Aliens Act’ (2012) 30, Nordic Journal of Human Rights 148-173. google scholar
45. Odman MT, Tarihsel Gelişim Sürecinde Güncelleştirilmiş Mülteci Hukuku (Dünya’da ve Türkiye’de İlticanın Gelişim Süreci) (Yetkin Yayınları 2020). google scholar
46. Ogg K, ‘The Future of Feminist Engagement with Refugee Law: from the Margins to the Centre and out of the ‘Pink Ghetto’?’, Research Handbook on Feminist Engagement with International Law, Susan Harris Rimmer, Kate Ogg (Eds.) (Edward Elgar Publishing 2019). google scholar
47. O’Sullivan M/Stevens D, ‘Access to Refugee Protection: Key Concepts and Contemporary Challenges’ States, the Law and Access to Refugee Protection: Fortresses and Fairness, Maria O’Sullivan/Dallal Stevens (Eds.) (Hart Publishing 2017). google scholar
48. Özel S, ‘Türkiye’deki Suriyelilerin Hukuki Statüsü’ (2020) 17(2) Yeditepe Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 709-734. google scholar
49. Özkan I, Göç ve Vatandaşlık Hukuku (Seçkin Yayıncılık, 2022). google scholar
50. Özkan I, Göç-İltica ve Sığınma Hukuku (5th edn, Seçkin Yayıncılık 2023). google scholar
51. Öztürk NÖ, ‘Geçici Korumanın Uluslararası Koruma Rejimine Uyumu Üzerine Bir İnceleme’ (2017) 66(1) Ankara Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 201-264. google scholar
52. Öztürk NÖ, Mültecinin Hukuki Statüsünün Belirlenmesi (Seçkin Yayıncılık 2015). google scholar
53. Pazarcı H, Uluslararası Hukuk Dersleri, 4. Kitap (Turhan Kitabevi 2016). google scholar
54. Perluss D/Hartman JF, ‘Temporary Refuge: Emergence of a Customary Norm’ (1986) 26 Virginia J of Intl L 551-626. google scholar
55. Petitpas E/Nelles J, ‘The Istanbul Convention: New Treaty, New Tool Forced’ (2015) (49) Migration Review 83-6. google scholar
56. Raj S, ‘The Gender Element in International Refugee Law: Its Impact on Agency Programming and the North-South Debate’ (2001) (1) ISIL Year Book of International Humanitarian and Refugee Law 164-182. google scholar
57. Poçanoğlu ŞS, ‘21. Yüzyılda Yeni Bir Sığınmacı Krizi: Rusya ve Ukrayna Arasında Yaşanan Silahlı Çatışmalar Sebebiyle Yerinden Edilmiş Kişiler’, Rusya-Ukrayna Krizi ve Uluslararası Hukuk, Cüneyt Yüksel/ Ceren Karagözoğlu (eds) (On İki Levha 2023). google scholar
58. Safi S, Mülteci Hukuku (2nd edn, Legal 2023). google scholar
59. Soykan C/ Biehl K / Hazan C, Türkiye’de Katılımcı Demokrasinin Güçlendirilmesi: Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliğinin İzlenmesi Projesi Faz II, Kadın Mülteciler ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Haritalama ve İzleme Çalışması (Ceid Yayınları 2021). google scholar
60. Sütlüoğlu B, Uluslararası Mülteci Hukuku ve Türk Hukukunda Sığınma Sistemi (On İki Levha 2021). google scholar
61. Tokuzlu LB, ‘Yabancılar ve Uluslararası Koruma Kanun’un Yasal Belirlilik İlkesi Konusunda Türk Uygulamasına Katkısı Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme’ (2016) (7) Uyuşmazlık Mahkemesi Dergisi 1061-1105. google scholar
62. Topal AH, ‘Geçici Koruma Yönetmeliği ve Türkiye’deki Suriyelilerin Hukuki Statüsü’ (2015) 2(1) İstanbul Medipol Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 5-22. google scholar
63. Topal AH, Mülteci Hukuku ve Silahlı Çatışma Kaynaklı Sığınmacılar (On İki Levha 2019). google scholar
64. Uzun E, ‘Geri Göndermeme İlkesinin Uluslararası Hukuktaki Konumu Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme’ (2012) 8 (30) Uluslararası Hukuk ve Politika 25-58. google scholar
65. Yılmaz Eren E, Mülteci Hukukunda Geçici Koruma (2nd edn Seçkin Yayıncılık 2021). google scholar
66. International Documents and Court Decisions google scholar
67. Arab Convention on Regulating Status of Refugees in the Arab Countries Adopted by the League of Arab States, 1994, 21 February 2024. google scholar
68. Cartagena Declaration on Refugees, Colloquium on the International Protection of Refugees in Central America, Mexico and Panama 11 October 2022. google scholar
69. Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFREU) (2012) OJ C326. google scholar
70. Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 189, p 137. google scholar
71. Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms as amended by Protocols No. 11 and No. 14, European Treaty Series- No. 5, Council of Europa 14 June 2023. google scholar
72. Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1465, p. 85. google scholar
73. Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence against Women and Domestic Violence (Council of Europe Treaty Series- No. 210) United Nations, Treaty Series, volume-3010-I-52313.pdf. google scholar
74. Geneva Convention relative to the protection of civilian persons in time of war, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 75 (p.287). google scholar
75. OAU Convention governing the specific aspects of refugee problems in Africa, United Nations, Treaty Series, 1001 (p.45). google scholar
76. Protocol additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol I), United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1125 (p.3)). google scholar
77. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and relating to the protection of victims of non-international armed conflicts (Protocol II), United Nations, Treaty Series, 1125 (p.609). google scholar
78. Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 606, p. 267. google scholar
79. Türkiye’ye İltica Eden veya Başka Bir Ülkeye İltica Etmek Üzere Türkiye’den İkamet İzni Talep Eden Münferit Yabancılar ile Topluca Sığınma Amacıyla Sınırlarımıza Gelen Yabancılara ve Olabilecek Nüfus Hareketlerine Uygulanacak Usul ve Esaslar Hakkında Yönetmelik, RG 30.11.1994/22127. google scholar
80. Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, United States of America: Addendum to (E/AC.32/L.4) (19 January 1950); Ad Hoc Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems, Decisions of the Committee on Statelessness and Related Problems Taken at the Meetings of 31 January 1950 (E/AC.32/L.20) 12 September 2024. google scholar
81. CEDAW General Recommendation No. 19: Violence against Women, Adopted at the Eleventh Session of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, in 1992 (Contained in Document A/47/38) 15 August 2024. google scholar
82. Corrigendum to the Proposal for a Draft Convention Submitted by France, (E/AC.32/L.3/Corr.1) (18 January 1950) 12 September 2024. google scholar
83. Council Europe: Committe of Ministers, Declaration on Territorial Asylum (Adopted by the Committee of Ministers on 18 November 1977, at the 278th meeting of the Ministers’ Deputies), md. 2 www.refworld.org/legal/resolution/coeministers/1977/en/27158> 22 February 2024. google scholar
84. Council of Europe and Amnesty International, The Council of Europe Convention on Preventing and Combating Violence Against Women- A tool to end female genital mutilation, Strasbourg, 2014. google scholar
85. Conclusions Adopted By The Executive Committee On The International Protection Of Refugees, Executive Committee Conclusion No. 39 (XXXVI) Refugee Women And International Protection, 1985 24 February 2024. google scholar
86. Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons: Summary Record of the Third Meeting, UN Documents (A/CONF.2/SR.3). google scholar
87. Conclusions Adopted By The Executive Committee on The International Protection of Refugees, Executive Committee Conclusion No. 73 (XLIV) Refugee Protection And Sexual Violence (1993). google scholar
88. Council of Europe, Protecting migrant women, refugee women and women asylum seekers from gender-based violence, 2019 14 June 2024. google scholar
89. Council Directive 2004/83/EC of 29 April 2004 on minimum standards for the qualification and status of third country nationals or stateless persons as refugees or as persons who otherwise need international protection and the content of the protection granted (Official Journal of the European Union, L 304/12, 30.09.2004) 22 March 2024. google scholar
90. Draft Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees : decisions of the Working Group taken on google scholar
91. General Assembly-Fifth Session, 428 (V) Statute of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees < https://documents.un.org/doc/resolution/gen/nr0/060/26/pdf/ nr006026.pdf?token=O53txAKpuQm4pbEVwv&fe=true> 23 February 2024. google scholar
92. Directive 2011/95/EU of The European Parliament And of The Council of 13 December 2011 on standards for the qualification of third-country nationals or stateless persons as beneficiaries of international protection, for a uniform status for refugees or for persons eligible for subsidiary protection, and for the content of the protection granted (Official Journal of the European Union, L 337/9, 20.12.2011) 22 March 2024. google scholar
93. European Asylum Support Office (EASO), Article 15(c) Qualification Directive (2011/95/EU) A judicial analysis, 2014. google scholar
94. General Assembly, Conference of Plenipotentiaries on the Status of Refugees and Stateless Persons, (A/CONF.2/SR.35) 3 December 1951 14 June 2024. google scholar
95. UNGA, A/RES/1167(XII) of 26 November 1957 (Chinese refugees in Hong Kong); A/ RES/1388(XIV) of 20 November 1959 (Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees); A/RES/1499(XV) of 5 December 1960 (Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees); A/RES/1673(XVI) of 18 December 1961 (Report of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees) 12 September 2024. google scholar
96. Council Directive 2001/55/EC of 20 July 2001 on minimum standards for giving temporary protection in the event of a mass influx of displaced persons and on measures promoting a balance of efforts between Member States in receiving such persons and bearing the consequences thereof, Official Journal L 212, 07/08/2001, bkz. 24 October 2024. google scholar
97. UN Economic and Social Council, ‘Provisional Draft of Parts of the Definition Article of the Preliminary Draft Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees, Prepared by the Working Group on this Article, (E/AC.32/L.6) (23 January 1950) 12 September 2024. google scholar
98. UNHCR, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining Refugee Status and Guidelines on International Protection Under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, (HCR/1P/4/ENG/REV.4), 2019. google scholar
99. UNHCR, Providing International Protection Including Through Complementary Forms of Protection, EC/55/SC/CRP.16, 2 June 2005 google scholar
100. UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection: Gender-Related Persecution Within The Context of Article 1A(2) of The 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol Relating to The Status of Refugees (HCR/GIP/02/01) 7 May 2002 3 August 2024. google scholar
101. UNHCR, Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women (1991) 12 August 2024. google scholar
102. UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 2: “Membership of a particular social group” within the context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and/or its 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees, 7 May 2002 (HCR/GIP/02/02) 22 February 2024. google scholar
103. UNHCR, Resettlement Handbook, 3.4 Women and Girls at Risk 1 March 2024. google scholar
104. UNHCR, Report of the Special Rapporteur on torture and other cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment (A/HRC/31/57), 5 January 2016 14 August 2024. google scholar
105. UNHCR, Sexual And Gender-Based Violence Against Refugees, Returnees and Internally Displaced Persons, May 2003 3 August 2024. google scholar
106. UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection (HCR/GIP/02/01), para 36; UNHCR, Guidelines on International Protection No. 9: Claims to Refugee Status based on Sexual Orientation and/or Gender Identity within the context of Article 1A(2) of the 1951 Convention and 1967 Protocol relating to the Status of Refugees (HCR/GIP/12/09) 23 October 2012 22 October 2024. google scholar
107. UNHCR, Note on Burden and Standard of Proof in Refugee Claims 16 December 1998, para 5 10 December 2024. google scholar
108. The Treaty On The Functioning Of The European Union, (Official Journal of the European Union, C 326/47, 26.10.2012)) , 22 March 2024. google scholar
109. Ankara 1. İdare Mahkemesi, E.2014/2070, K.2015/2630, 30.11.2015, 23 October 2024. google scholar
110. Asylum and Immigration Tribunal, KH (Article 15(c) Qualification Directive) Iraq CG [2008] UKAIT 00023 16 August 2024. google scholar
111. CJEU, (Fourth Chamber), C-285/12, 30 January 2014 14 August 2024. google scholar
112. CJEU, (Third Chamber) 4 October 2024, In Joined Cases C 608/22 and C 609/22, para 41 5 December 2024. google scholar
113. Upper Tribunal (Immigration and Asylum Chamber), ZMM (Article 15(c)) Libya CG [2017] UKUT 00263 (IAC) 16 August 2024. google scholar
114. Upper Tribunal (Immigration and Asylum Chamber) HM and others (Article 15(c)) Iraq CG [2012] UKUT 00409(IAC) 16 August 2024. google scholar
115. ICTR, Trial Chamber, Prosecutor v Jean Paul Akayesu, (ICTR-96-4-T) 2 September 1998 12 August 2024. google scholar
116. Ireland- High Court, J.T.M.v Minister for Justice and Equality, Ireland and the Attorney General, IEHC 99, March 2012 3 September 2024. google scholar
117. Refugee Status Appeals Authority, Refugee Appeal No. 80/91, N.S. at Auckland, 20.02.1992, Karar için bkz. 4 September 2024. google scholar
118. Matter of A-R-C-G- et al., United States Department of Justice Executive Office for Immigration Review Board of Immigration Appeals, 26 August 2014 Matter of Rodi AdaH Alvarado-Pena, United States Board of Immigration Appeals, 20 September 1996, , 22 October 2024. google scholar
119. Minister For Immigration & Multicultural Affairs v Khawar [2000] FCA 1130, Federal Court of Australia, 23 August 2000 22 August 2024. google scholar
120. R v. Immigration Appeal Tribunal and Secretary of State for the Home Department Ex Parte Shah; Islam and Others v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Court of Appeal, 23 July 1997 2 September 2024. google scholar
121. Zainab Esther Fornah v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Case No: C4/2004/2047, Neutral Citation Number: [2005] EWCA Civ 680, in the Supreme Court of Judicature Court of Appeal (Civil Appeals Division) on Appeal from Immigration Appeal Tribunal, Royal Courts of Justice Strand, London, 9 June 2005, 4 September 2024. google scholar
122. The Attorney General of Canada v. Patrick Francis Ward, Supreme Court Judgments, [1993] 2 S.C.R. 689, 21 September 2024. google scholar
123. The Administrative Court of Augsburg, Au 6 K 30092, 16 June 2011. google scholar
124. 4 September 2024. google scholar Australia Refugee Review Tribunal, RRT Case No. 1208496, 24 December 2012, para 93, www.refworld.org/jurisprudence/caselaw/ausrrt/2012/en/91259>, 12 December 2024. google scholar