Yaşamın İlk Yıllarında Grup Kimliği

Year 2023, , 57 - 78, 30.06.2023

Betül Sarı , Hülya Gülay Ogelman

https://doi.org/10.58667/sedder.1303879

Abstract

İnsanlar yaşamları boyunca ait hissetme ve diğerleri ile bağ kurma yönünde güçlü bir güdü ile hareket ederler. Benliğin temel bileşenlerinden biri olarak grup kimliği duygu, düşünce, davranış ve karar alma süreçlerinde önemli rol oynamaktadır. Yaşamın ilk yılları birçok alanda olduğu gibi grup aidiyetinin gelişimi ve sağlıklı grup-içi ve gruplar arası ilişkilerin kurulması adına bazı kritik süreçleri barındırmaktadır. Bu noktada Sosyal Akıl Yürütme Gelişim Bakış Açısı, (a) gruplar arası ilişkiler ile grup-içi kayırmacılığı ve grup-dışı önyargısının oluşum süreçlerine, (b) grup-içi ve gruplar arası ilişkilerde benimsenen tutumlarda etkili olan ahlaki, toplumsal ve psikolojik muhakeme süreçlerine ve (c) yine gruplar arası ilişkilerde etkili olan açık ve örtük ön yargı süreçlerinin karar alma süreçlerindeki etkisine ve tüm bunların yaş temelli değişimlerine odaklanmaktadır. Özellikle Türkiye özelinde grup kimliğinin erken yaşlardan itibaren nasıl şekillendiğine ve zamanla nasıl gelişip dönüştüğüne ışık tutmak toplumsal dinamikleri anlamak ve sosyal uyumu sağlamak için önem taşımaktadır. Grup-içi kayırmacılığı, grup-dışı önyargı ve buna bağlı olarak gruplar arası çatışmalar yaş ilerledikçe daha da güçlenerek devam etme potansiyeline sahiptir. Dolayısıyla sağlıklı kimlik gelişimi, farklı sosyal kimliklerin kabulü ve gruplar arası olumlu ilişkilerin kurulması için erken çocukluk dönemi alan yazınında bu konunun ele alınması önemlidir.

Keywords

Grup aidiyeti, grup kimliği, sosyal sınıflandırma, erken çocukluk

Group Identity in The First Years of Life

Abstract

Throughout their lives, people act with a strong motivation to feel belonging and connect with others. As one of the main components of the self, group identity plays an important role in emotion, thought, behavior, and decision-making processes. As in many other areas, the first years of life include some critical processes for developing group belonging and forming healthy in-group and intergroup relations. At this point, the Social Reasoning Development Perspective focuses on a) the formation processes of intergroup relations and in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice, b) the moral, social, and psychological reasoning processes that are effective in the attitudes adopted in in-group and intergroup relations c) the effect of explicit and implicit prejudice processes, which are also effective in intergroup relations, on decision-making processes, and d) the age-based changes of all these. Especially in Turkey, it is essential to shed light on how group identity is shaped from an early age and how it develops and transforms over time in order to understand social dynamics and ensure social cohesion. In-group favoritism, outgroup bias, and with regard to these emerging inter-group conflicts have the potential to continue by getting stronger with age. Therefore, for healthy identity development, acceptance of different social identities, and establishment of positive intergroup relations, it is significant to address this issue in the literature focusing on early childhood.

Keywords

Group identity, group belonging, social categorization, early childhood

References

• Aboud, F. E. (2003). The formation of in-group favoritism and out-group prejudice in young children: Are they distinct attitudes? Developmental Psychology, 39(1), 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.39.1.48
• Abrams, D., & Rutland, A. (2008). The development of subjective group dynamics. In S. R. Levy & M. Killen (Eds.), Intergroup attitudes and relations in childhood through adulthood (pp. 47–65). Oxford University Press.
• Bar-Haim, Y., Ziv, T., Lamy, D., & Hodes, R. M. (2006). Nature and nurture in own-race face processing. Psychological Science, 17(2), 159–163. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.2006.01679.x
• Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117(3), 497–529.
• Bennett, M., & Sani, F. (2004). Introduction: Children and social identity. In M. Bennett & F. Sani (Eds.), The development of the social self (pp. 1–26). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203391099_chapter_1
• Brenick, A., & Killen, M. (2014). Moral judgments about Jewish-Arab intergroup exclusion: the role of cultural identity and contact. Developmental Psychology, 50(1), 86–99. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0034702
• Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Loss, sadness and depression. Basic Books.
• Brewer, M. B., & Gardner, W. (1996). Who is this "We"? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(1), 83–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
• Chalik, L., Misch, A., & Dunham, Y. (2022). Social cognitive development: The intergroup context. In O. Houdé & G. Borst (Eds.), The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Development (Cambridge Handbooks in Psychology, pp. 481-499). Cambridge University Press.
• Cikara, M. (2015). Intergroup schadenfreude: Motivating participation in collective violence. Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 12-17.
• Cikara, M., Bruneau, E., Van Bavel, J. J., & Saxe, R. (2014). Their pain gives us pleasure: How intergroup dynamics shape empathic failures and counter-empathic responses. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 55, 110–125. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2014.06.007
• Cooley, S., Elenbaas, L., & Killen, M. (2012). Moral judgments and emotions: adolescents' evaluations in intergroup social exclusion contexts. New Directions for Youth Development, 2012(136), 41–9. https://doi.org/10.1002/yd.20037
• De La Cerda, C., & Warnell, K. R. (2020). Young children’s willingness to deceive shows in-group bias only in specific social contexts. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 198, Article 104906. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2020.104906
• Dunham, Y., Stepanova, E. V., Dotsch, R., & Todorov, A. (2015). The development of race‐based perceptual categorization: Skin color dominates early category judgments. Developmental Science, 18(3), 469-483.
• Erikson, E.H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. W.W. Norton&Company,Inc.
• Escalera-Reyes, J. (2020). Place attachment, feeling of belonging and collective identity in socio-ecological systems: Study case of Pegalajar (Andalusia-Spain). Sustainability, 12(8), 3388.
• Freud, S. (1930). Civilization and its discontents (J. Riviere, Trans.).Hogarth Press. Heron-Delaney, M., Wirth, S., & Pascalis, O. (2011). Infants' knowledge of their own species. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 366(1571), 1753–1763. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2010.0371
• Hogg, M.A. (2016). Social Identity Theory. In: McKeown, S., Haji, R., Ferguson, N. (Eds.), Understanding peace and conflict through social identity theory. Peace Psychology Book Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-29869-6_1
• Katz, P. A. (1976). The acquisition of racial attitudes in children. In P.A. Katz (Ed.), Towards the elimination of racism (pp. 125–154). Pergamon Press.
• Kassin, S., Fein, S. & Markus, H. R., (2016). Social psychology. (10th ed.). Cengage Learning.
• Kelly, D. J., Quinn, P. C., Slater, A. M., Lee, K., Gibson, A., Smith, M., Ge, L., & Pascalis, O. (2005). Three-month-olds, but not newborns, prefer own-race faces. Developmental Science, 8(6), F31–F36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2005.0434a.x
• Kerpelman, J. L., & Pittman, J. F. (2018). Erikson and the relational context of identity: Strengthening connections with attachment theory. Identity: An International Journal of Theory and Research, 18(4), 306–314. https://doi.org/10.1080/15283488.2018.1523726
• Kohlberg, L. (1958). The Development of Modes of Thinking and Choices in Years 10 to 16. Ph. D. Dissertation, University of Chicago.
• Killen, M. (2007). Children’s Social and Moral Reasoning About Exclusion. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 16(1), 32–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8721.2007.00470.x
• Killen, M., Elenbaas, L., & Rutland, A. (2016). Balancing the Fair Treatment of Others While Preserving Group Identity and Autonomy. Human development, 58(4-5), 253–272. https://doi.org/10.1159/000444151
• Killen, M., & Rutland, A. (2011). Understanding children's worlds.Children and social exclusion: Morality, prejudice, and group identity. Wiley Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444396317
• Killen, M., Rutland, A., Abrams, D., Mulvey, K. L., & Hitti, A. (2013). Development of intra‐ and intergroup judgments in the context of moral and social‐conventional norms. Child Development, 84(3), 1063–1080. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12011
• Lee, K., Anzures, G., Quinn, P. C., Pascalis, O., & Slater, A. (2011). Development of face processing expertise. In A. J. Calder, G. Rhodes, M. H. Johnson, & J. V. Haxby (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of face perception (pp. 753–778). Oxford University Press.
• Lee, K. J. J., Esposito, G., & Setoh, P. (2018). Preschoolers favor their ingroup when resources are limited. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 1752. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01752
• Linville, P. W. (1998). The heterogeneity of homogeneity. In J. M. Darley & J. Cooper (Eds.), Attribution and social interaction: The legacy of Edward E. Jones (pp. 423–487). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/10286-008
• Liu, S., Xiao, W. S., Xiao, N. G., Quinn, P. C., Zhang, Y., Chen, H., Ge, L., Pascalis, O., & Lee, K. (2015). Development of visual preference for own- versus other-race faces in infancy. Developmental Psychology, 51(4), 500–511. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0038835
• Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50(4), 370–396. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0054346
• McGuire, L., Rizzo, M. T., Killen, M., & Rutland, A. (2018). The development of intergroup resource allocation: The role of cooperative and competitive in-group norms. Developmental Psychology, 54(8), 1499–1506. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000535
• Miller, H. A. (1921). The group as an instinct. American Journal of Sociology, 27(3), 334–343. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2764545 Misch, A., Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2016). I won’t tell: Young children show loyalty to their group by keeping group secrets. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 96–106.
• Nesdale, D. (2004). Social identity processes and children's ethnic prejudice. In M. Bennett & F. Sani (Eds.), The development of the social self (p. 219–245). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203391099_chapter_8
• Nesdale, D. (2011). Social groups and children's intergroup prejudice: Just how influential are social group norms? Anales de Psicología, 27(3), 600–610.
• Nesdale, D. (2017). Children and social groups. In A. Rutland, D. Nesdale & C.S. Brown (Eds.), The wiley handbook of group processes in children and adolescents (pp. 3-22). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118773123.ch1
• Over H. (2016). The origins of belonging: social motivation in infants and young children. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences, 371(1686), 20150072. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2015.0072
• Piaget, J. (1932). The moral judgment of the child. Free Press. Pickron, C. B., & Cheries, E. W. (2019). Infants' individuation of faces by gender. Brain Sciences, 9(7), 163. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci9070163
• Raabe, T., & Beelmann, A. (2011). Development of ethnic, racial, and national prejudice in childhood and adolescence: a multinational meta-analysis of age differences. Child Development, 82(6), 1715–1737. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01668.x
• Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., & Haslam, S. A. (2003). Social identity and self-categorization theories’contribution to understanding identification, salience and diversity in teams and organizations. In J. Polzer (Ed.), Identity issues in groups (Vol. 5, pp. 279-304). Emerald Group Publishing Limited.
• Rhodes, M., & Baron, A. (2019). The development of social categorization. Annual Review of Developmental Psychology, 1, 359–386. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-devpsych-121318-084824
• Ruble, D. N., Alvarez, J., Bachman, M., Cameron, J., Fuligni, A., & Coll, C. G. (2004). The development of a sense of “we”: The emergence and implications of children’s collective identity. In M. Bennett & F. Sani (Eds.), The Development of The Social Self (pp. 29–76). Psychology Press.
• Rutland, A., & Killen, M. (2015). A developmental science approach to reducing prejudice and social exclusion: Intergroup processes, social‐cognitive development, and moral reasoning. Social Issues and Policy Review, 9(1), 121–154. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12012
• Rutland, A., & Killen, M. (2017). Fair resource allocation among children and adolescents: The role of group and developmental processes. Child Development Perspectives, 11(1), 56–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12211
• Rutland, A., Killen, M., & Abrams, D. (2010). A new social-cognitive developmental perspective on prejudice. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 279–291.
• Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A., & McGeorge, P. (2005). Social norms and self-presentation: children's implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76(2), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00856.x
• Schuhmacher, N., & Kärtner, J. (2019). Preschoolers prefer in‐group to out‐group members, but equally condemn their immoral acts. Social Development, 28(4), 1074- 1094.
• Sedikides, C., & Brewer, M. B. (2001). Individual, relational, and collective self: partners, opponents, or strangers? In C. Sedikides & M. B. Brewer (Eds.), Individual self, relational self, collective self (pp. 1–4). Philadelphia: Psychology.
• Sedikides, C., Gaertner, L., & O’Mara, E.M. (2011). Individual self, relational self, collective self: hierarchical ordering of the tripartite Self. Psychol Stud 56, 98–107 https://doi.org/10.1007/s12646-011-0059-0
• Setoh, P., Lee, K. J. J., Zhang, L., Qian, M. K., Quinn, P. C., Heyman, G. D., & Lee, K. (2019). Racial categorization predicts implicit racial bias in preschool children. Child Development, 90(1), 162–179. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12851
• Smetana, J. G. (2006). Social-cognitive domain theory: Consistencies and variations in children's moral and social judgments. In M. Killen & J. G. Smetana (Eds.), Handbook of moral development (p. 119–153). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
• Smetana, J. G. (2013). Moral development: The social domain theory view. In P. D. Zelazo (Ed.), Oxford library of psychology. The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol. 1): Body and mind (p. 832–863). Oxford University Press.
• Spears, R. (2011). Group identities: the social identity perspective. In: Schwartz, S., Luyckx, K., Vignoles, V. (Eds.), Handbook of identity theory and research. (pp. 201-204). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-7988-9_9
• Tajfel, H. (Ed.). (1978). Differentiation between social groups: Studies in the social psychology of intergroup relations.Academic Press.
• Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories. Cambridge University Press.
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In W. G. Austin, & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33-37). Brooks/Cole.
• Trepte, S., & Loy, L. S. (2017). Social identity theory and self‐categorization theory. The international Encyclopedia of Media Effects, 1-13.
• Turiel, E. (1978). Social regulations and domains of social concepts. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 1978, 45-74.
• Turner, J. (1982). Toward a cognitive definition of the group. In H. Tajfel (Ed.), Social identity and intergroup relations. Cambridge University Press.
• Turner, J. C., Hogg, M. A., Oakes, P. J., Reicher, S. D., & Wetherell, M. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Basil Blackwell.
• Turner, J. C., Oakes, P. J., Haslam, A., & McGarty, C. (1994). Self and collective: Cognition and social context. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 454– 463.
• Quinn, P. C., Yahr, J., Kuhn, A., Slater, A. M., & Pascalis, O. (2002). Representation of the gender of human faces by ınfants: a preference for female. Perception, 31(9), 1109–1121. https://doi.org/10.1068/p3331
• Ware E. A. (2017). Individual and developmental differences in preschoolers' categorization biases and vocabulary across tasks. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 153, 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.08.009