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THE EVOLUTION OF WESTERN SPIRITUALITY: FROM ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME TO CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES

Year 2023, , 841 - 855, 31.07.2023
https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.1256854

Abstract

This article provides a comprehensive overview of the history of spirituality in the Western world, examining its evolution from ancient Greece and Rome to contemporary practices. The article explores the development of key religious and philosophical traditions, including early Christianity, the Protestant Reformation, and the Enlightenment, and analyzes their contributions to the evolution of Western spirituality. The article also investigates the emergence of contemporary spirituality, highlighting its emphasis on personal experience and individual growth, and its rejection of traditional religious institutions and dogma. While contemporary spirituality has been criticized for its lack of structure and its tendency to promote subjective experiences over objective truth, it has also had a significant impact on Western culture, particularly in the areas of health and wellness. The article discusses the challenges that contemporary spirituality poses, including the potential for spiritual bypassing, the need for authenticity in spiritual practices, and the importance of recognizing spirituality as a deeply personal and individual experience. Additionally, the article explores the future of Western spirituality, considering the impact of changing cultural and social trends and the ongoing evolution of spiritual practices. The article also examines important works and figures that have contributed to the development of Western spirituality from Ancient Greece and Rome to contemporary times, showing the diversity and richness of spiritual perspectives and practices over time. Ultimately, this article offers a comprehensive overview of the history of Western spirituality and highlights its enduring influence on Western culture and society, while also providing insights into the challenges and opportunities that contemporary spirituality presents.

References

  • App, U. (2010). The birth of orientalism. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Aristotle. (1995). Nicomachean ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Armstrong, K. (1993). A history of God: The 4,000-year quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Artress, L. (2006). Walking a sacred path: Rediscovering the labyrinth as a spiritual tool. Penguin.
  • Athanassiadi, P. & Frede, M. (2009). Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press.
  • Augustine. (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press.
  • Aurelius, M. (2003). Meditations. Penguin Classics.
  • Bainton, R. H. (1978). The reformation of the sixteenth century. Beacon Press.
  • Baur, F. C. (1877). Christianity and the Christian church. Scribner, Armstrong.
  • Brading, D. (2007). Christian monotheism in the early church. Cambridge University Press.
  • Brown, P. (1984). The body and society: Men, women, and sexual renunciation in early Christianity. Columbia University Press.
  • Bruce, S. (2002). God is dead: Secularization in the West. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Burkert, W. (1987). Ancient mystery cults. Harvard University Press.
  • Byrne, P. (1996). Religion and the Greeks. Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Carus, P. (1900). The nature of the spiritual world. Open Court Publishing.
  • Chadwick, H. (1967). The early church. Pelican Books.
  • Chödrön, P. (2000). When things fall apart: Heart advice for difficult times. Shambhala.
  • Cope, S. (2015). The modern yoga bible: The definitive guide to yoga today. Godsfield Press.
  • Cross, R. (1993). Plato’s ethics: An overview. Oxford University Press.
  • Deloria, V. & Wilkins, D. E. (2003). Tribes, treaties, and constitutional tribulations. University of Texas Press.
  • Dillon, M. (2002). Religion in the ancient Greek city. Oxford University Press.
  • Eire, C. M. N. (2016). Reformations: The early modern world, 1450-1650. Yale University Press.
  • Eliade, M. (1957). The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Eliade, M. (1987). The myth of the eternal return: Cosmos and history. Princeton University Press.
  • Emerson, R. W. & Thoreau, H. D. (2003). Nature and Selected Essays. Penguin Classics.
  • Ferguson, J. (2015). Spirituality in ancient Rome. Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Fernie, E. (2013). Art history and class struggle. Haymarket Books.
  • Gay, P. (1995). The enlightenment: The rise of modern paganism. W. W. Norton & Company.
  • Gibbon, E. (1910). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. J.M. Dent & Co.
  • Hadot, P. (2002). What is ancient philosophy? (Trans: M. Chase). Harvard University Press.
  • Hanegraaff, W. J. (1996). New Age religion and Western culture: Esotericism in the mirror of secular thought. Brill Academic Pub.
  • Hazard, P. (2012). The Enlightenment and the emergence of modern Western spirituality. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
  • Heelas, P. (2008). Spiritualities of life: New age romanticism and consumptive capitalism. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Heelas, P. & Woodhead, L. (2005). The spiritual revolution: Why religion is giving way to spirituality. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Heimert, A. (1966). Religion and the American mind. Harvard University Press.
  • Hillerbrand, H. J. (2009). The Protestant reformation. HarperCollins.
  • Interfaith Youth Core. (n.d.). About us. Interfaith Youth Core. https://www.ifyc.org/about-us
  • Jacob, M. C. (1991). The radical enlightenment: Pantheists, freemasons, and republicans. George Allen & Unwin.
  • Joppke, C. (2009). Religious diversity and integration in Europe: New directions in the study of public policy. Comparative Political Studies, 42(11), 1394-1420.
  • Julian of Norwich. (2005). Revelations of Divine Love. Penguin Classics.
  • Jung, C. G. (1969). Archetypes and the collective unconscious. Routledge.
  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hyperion.
  • Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge University Press.
  • Klaassen, W. (1975). Anabaptism: Neither Catholic nor Protestant. Herald Press.
  • Krautheimer, R. (1986). Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. Yale University Press.
  • Kripal, J. J. (2021). The flip: Epiphanies of mind and the future of knowledge. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press.
  • Lamport, M. A. (2010). Encyclopedia of Christian education. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
  • La Barre, W. (1975). The Peyote Cult. Schocken Books.
  • Lea, H. C. (1888). A history of the inquisition of the Middle Ages. Harper & Brothers.
  • Locke, J. (1997). An essay concerning human understanding. Penguin Classics.
  • Locke, J. (2000). A letter concerning toleration. Hackett Publishing.
  • MacCulloch, D. (2003). Reformation: Europe’s house divided, 1490-1700. Penguin.
  • McGrath, A. E. (2011). Christian theology: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
  • McGuire, M. B. (2008). Lived religion: Faith and practice in everyday life. Oxford University Press.
  • Merton, T. (1999). New seeds of contemplation. New Directions Publishing Corporation.
  • Miles, M. R. (2005). The word made flesh: A history of Christian thought. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Mitchell, D. (2008). Beads and prayers: The rosary and mala in Christian and Buddhist traditions. CrossCurrents, 58(4), 507-522.
  • Paloutzian, R. F. & Park, C. L. (2013). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. Guilford Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (1971). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (2005a). Jesus through the centuries: His place in the history of culture. Yale University Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (2005b). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine. University of Chicago Press.
  • Pew Research Center. (2015). America’s changing religious landscape. https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/
  • Pew Research Center. (2016). Religious landscape study: Gender composition by tradition. https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/gender-composition/traditional/#all-traditions
  • Pew Research Center. (2021). Religious “Nones” are growing rapidly among Democrats as well as Republicans and Independents. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/02/08/religious-nones-are-growing-rapidly-among-democrats-as-well-as-republicans-and-independents/
  • Plato. (1997). Complete works. Hackett Publishing.
  • Plato. (2003). Symposium. Hackett Publishing.
  • Plotinus. (1991). The Enneads. Penguin Classics.
  • Rothstein, M. (2016). The commodification of spirituality: The case of the mindfulness movement. Religion Compass, 10(6), 136-144.
  • Rooney, P. (2016). Selling spirituality: The silent takeover of religion. Routledge.
  • Runciman, S. (1947). The medieval Manichee: a study of the Christian dualist heresy. Cambridge University Press.
  • Seneca. (2004). Letters to Lucilius. Penguin Classics.
  • St. John of the Cross. (2002). The dark night of the soul and the ascent of mount Carmel. Random House.
  • Stark, R. (1996). The Rise of Christianity: How the obscure, marginal Jesus movement became the dominant religious force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. HarperCollins.
  • Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the self: The making of the modern identity. Harvard University Press.
  • Taylor, C. (2007). A secular age. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
  • Tolle, E. (2006). A new earth: awakening to your life’s purpose. Penguin.
  • Underhill, E. (2002). The Cloud of Unknowing. Dover Publications.
  • Walliss, J. (2013). Meditation in the modern world: Buddhism and modernity. Oxford University Press.
  • Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and spiritual transformation. Shambhala.
  • Wesley, J. (1960). The journal of John Wesley. Abingdon Press.
  • Williams, G. (2000). The radical reformation. Westminster Press.

Batı Maneviyatının Gelişimi: Antik Yunan ve Roma’dan Çağdaş Uygulamalara

Year 2023, , 841 - 855, 31.07.2023
https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.1256854

Abstract

Bu makale, Batı dünyasında maneviyatın tarihine kapsamlı bir genel bakış sunarak antik Yunan ve Roma’dan günümüz uygulamalarına kadar olan evrimini inceler. Makale, erken Hristiyanlık, Protestan Reformu ve Aydınlanma gibi önemli dini ve felsefi geleneklerin gelişimini araştırır ve Batı maneviyatının evrimine katkılarını analiz eder. Makale, çağdaş maneviyatın olası zorluklarını, manevi kaçınmayı engelleme ihtiyacını, manevi uygulamalarda otantikliğin önemini ve maneviyatı derinlemesine kişisel ve bireysel bir deneyim olarak tanımanın önemini ele alır. Ayrıca, makale, kültürel ve sosyal trendlerin değişimlerinin etkisini ve manevi uygulamaların sürekli evrimini göz önünde bulundurarak Batı maneviyatının geleceğini de tartışır. Son olarak makale, zaman içinde manevi bakış açılarının ve uygulamaların çeşitliliğini ve zenginliğini göstermesi açısından Antik Yunanistan ve Roma’dan çağdaş zamanlara Batı maneviyatının gelişimine katkıda bulunan önemli eser ve kişileri inceler. Sonuç olarak makale, Batı maneviyatının tarihine kapsamlı bir genel bakış sunar ve çağdaş maneviyatın Batı kültürü ve toplumu üzerindeki kalıcı etkisini vurgularken sunduğu zorluklar ve fırsatlar hakkında bilgi sağlar.

References

  • App, U. (2010). The birth of orientalism. University of Pennsylvania Press.
  • Aristotle. (1995). Nicomachean ethics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
  • Armstrong, K. (1993). A history of God: The 4,000-year quest of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Alfred A. Knopf.
  • Artress, L. (2006). Walking a sacred path: Rediscovering the labyrinth as a spiritual tool. Penguin.
  • Athanassiadi, P. & Frede, M. (2009). Pagan Monotheism in Late Antiquity. Oxford University Press.
  • Augustine. (2008). Confessions. Oxford University Press.
  • Aurelius, M. (2003). Meditations. Penguin Classics.
  • Bainton, R. H. (1978). The reformation of the sixteenth century. Beacon Press.
  • Baur, F. C. (1877). Christianity and the Christian church. Scribner, Armstrong.
  • Brading, D. (2007). Christian monotheism in the early church. Cambridge University Press.
  • Brown, P. (1984). The body and society: Men, women, and sexual renunciation in early Christianity. Columbia University Press.
  • Bruce, S. (2002). God is dead: Secularization in the West. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Burkert, W. (1987). Ancient mystery cults. Harvard University Press.
  • Byrne, P. (1996). Religion and the Greeks. Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Carus, P. (1900). The nature of the spiritual world. Open Court Publishing.
  • Chadwick, H. (1967). The early church. Pelican Books.
  • Chödrön, P. (2000). When things fall apart: Heart advice for difficult times. Shambhala.
  • Cope, S. (2015). The modern yoga bible: The definitive guide to yoga today. Godsfield Press.
  • Cross, R. (1993). Plato’s ethics: An overview. Oxford University Press.
  • Deloria, V. & Wilkins, D. E. (2003). Tribes, treaties, and constitutional tribulations. University of Texas Press.
  • Dillon, M. (2002). Religion in the ancient Greek city. Oxford University Press.
  • Eire, C. M. N. (2016). Reformations: The early modern world, 1450-1650. Yale University Press.
  • Eliade, M. (1957). The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
  • Eliade, M. (1987). The myth of the eternal return: Cosmos and history. Princeton University Press.
  • Emerson, R. W. & Thoreau, H. D. (2003). Nature and Selected Essays. Penguin Classics.
  • Ferguson, J. (2015). Spirituality in ancient Rome. Bloomsbury Academic.
  • Fernie, E. (2013). Art history and class struggle. Haymarket Books.
  • Gay, P. (1995). The enlightenment: The rise of modern paganism. W. W. Norton & Company.
  • Gibbon, E. (1910). The history of the decline and fall of the Roman empire. J.M. Dent & Co.
  • Hadot, P. (2002). What is ancient philosophy? (Trans: M. Chase). Harvard University Press.
  • Hanegraaff, W. J. (1996). New Age religion and Western culture: Esotericism in the mirror of secular thought. Brill Academic Pub.
  • Hazard, P. (2012). The Enlightenment and the emergence of modern Western spirituality. Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
  • Heelas, P. (2008). Spiritualities of life: New age romanticism and consumptive capitalism. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Heelas, P. & Woodhead, L. (2005). The spiritual revolution: Why religion is giving way to spirituality. Blackwell Publishing.
  • Heimert, A. (1966). Religion and the American mind. Harvard University Press.
  • Hillerbrand, H. J. (2009). The Protestant reformation. HarperCollins.
  • Interfaith Youth Core. (n.d.). About us. Interfaith Youth Core. https://www.ifyc.org/about-us
  • Jacob, M. C. (1991). The radical enlightenment: Pantheists, freemasons, and republicans. George Allen & Unwin.
  • Joppke, C. (2009). Religious diversity and integration in Europe: New directions in the study of public policy. Comparative Political Studies, 42(11), 1394-1420.
  • Julian of Norwich. (2005). Revelations of Divine Love. Penguin Classics.
  • Jung, C. G. (1969). Archetypes and the collective unconscious. Routledge.
  • Kabat-Zinn, J. (1994). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. Hyperion.
  • Kant, I. (1998). Critique of Pure Reason. Cambridge University Press.
  • Klaassen, W. (1975). Anabaptism: Neither Catholic nor Protestant. Herald Press.
  • Krautheimer, R. (1986). Early Christian and Byzantine architecture. Yale University Press.
  • Kripal, J. J. (2021). The flip: Epiphanies of mind and the future of knowledge. Belknap Press: An Imprint of Harvard University Press.
  • Lamport, M. A. (2010). Encyclopedia of Christian education. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
  • La Barre, W. (1975). The Peyote Cult. Schocken Books.
  • Lea, H. C. (1888). A history of the inquisition of the Middle Ages. Harper & Brothers.
  • Locke, J. (1997). An essay concerning human understanding. Penguin Classics.
  • Locke, J. (2000). A letter concerning toleration. Hackett Publishing.
  • MacCulloch, D. (2003). Reformation: Europe’s house divided, 1490-1700. Penguin.
  • McGrath, A. E. (2011). Christian theology: An introduction. John Wiley & Sons.
  • McGuire, M. B. (2008). Lived religion: Faith and practice in everyday life. Oxford University Press.
  • Merton, T. (1999). New seeds of contemplation. New Directions Publishing Corporation.
  • Miles, M. R. (2005). The word made flesh: A history of Christian thought. Wiley-Blackwell.
  • Mitchell, D. (2008). Beads and prayers: The rosary and mala in Christian and Buddhist traditions. CrossCurrents, 58(4), 507-522.
  • Paloutzian, R. F. & Park, C. L. (2013). Handbook of the psychology of religion and spirituality. Guilford Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (1971). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine. The University of Chicago Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (2005a). Jesus through the centuries: His place in the history of culture. Yale University Press.
  • Pelikan, J. (2005b). The Christian tradition: A history of the development of doctrine. University of Chicago Press.
  • Pew Research Center. (2015). America’s changing religious landscape. https://www.pewforum.org/2015/05/12/americas-changing-religious-landscape/
  • Pew Research Center. (2016). Religious landscape study: Gender composition by tradition. https://www.pewforum.org/religious-landscape-study/gender-composition/traditional/#all-traditions
  • Pew Research Center. (2021). Religious “Nones” are growing rapidly among Democrats as well as Republicans and Independents. https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2021/02/08/religious-nones-are-growing-rapidly-among-democrats-as-well-as-republicans-and-independents/
  • Plato. (1997). Complete works. Hackett Publishing.
  • Plato. (2003). Symposium. Hackett Publishing.
  • Plotinus. (1991). The Enneads. Penguin Classics.
  • Rothstein, M. (2016). The commodification of spirituality: The case of the mindfulness movement. Religion Compass, 10(6), 136-144.
  • Rooney, P. (2016). Selling spirituality: The silent takeover of religion. Routledge.
  • Runciman, S. (1947). The medieval Manichee: a study of the Christian dualist heresy. Cambridge University Press.
  • Seneca. (2004). Letters to Lucilius. Penguin Classics.
  • St. John of the Cross. (2002). The dark night of the soul and the ascent of mount Carmel. Random House.
  • Stark, R. (1996). The Rise of Christianity: How the obscure, marginal Jesus movement became the dominant religious force in the Western World in a Few Centuries. HarperCollins.
  • Taylor, C. (1989). Sources of the self: The making of the modern identity. Harvard University Press.
  • Taylor, C. (2007). A secular age. The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
  • Tolle, E. (2006). A new earth: awakening to your life’s purpose. Penguin.
  • Underhill, E. (2002). The Cloud of Unknowing. Dover Publications.
  • Walliss, J. (2013). Meditation in the modern world: Buddhism and modernity. Oxford University Press.
  • Welwood, J. (2000). Toward a psychology of awakening: Buddhism, psychotherapy, and the path of personal and spiritual transformation. Shambhala.
  • Wesley, J. (1960). The journal of John Wesley. Abingdon Press.
  • Williams, G. (2000). The radical reformation. Westminster Press.
There are 81 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Religious Studies
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Takyettin Karakaya 0000-0003-2535-1715

Publication Date July 31, 2023
Published in Issue Year 2023

Cite

APA Karakaya, T. (2023). THE EVOLUTION OF WESTERN SPIRITUALITY: FROM ANCIENT GREECE AND ROME TO CONTEMPORARY PRACTICES. Uludağ Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 24(45), 841-855. https://doi.org/10.21550/sosbilder.1256854