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12 NATO Üyesi Ülkede Kişi Başı Değerlere Dayalı Askeri Harcamalar ve GSYH Nedensellik İlişkisi

Year 2022, Volume: 30 Issue: 52, 157 - 181, 28.04.2022

Mesut Alper Gezer

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09
Cited By: 6

Abstract

Bu çalışma 12 NATO üyesi ülkede kişi başına reel GSYH, kişi başına reel askeri harcama ve kişi başına reel sermaye arasındaki ilişkiyi 1995-2020 dönemi için ele almaktadır. Yatay kesit bağımlılığını dikkate almak için sırasıyla Bai ve Ng (2004) PANIC, Westerlund ve Edgerton (2008) yapısal kırılma eşbütünleşme ve Konya (2006) bootstrap paneli nedensellik testleri uygulanmıştır. Aynı zamanda, 12 ülkenin kişi başına reel askeri harcamasının Rusya’ya yakınsaması tartışılmaktadır. Bu yakınsama için zayıf bulguların mevcut olduğu görülmektedir. Bootstrap panel nedensellik bulgularına göre 5 ülkede nedenselliğin olmadığına dair kuvvetli kanıtlar mevcuttur. Bu nedenle, Hırvatistan, Estonya, Letonya, Litvanya ve Türkiye’de Yansızlık Hipotezi geçerlidir.

Keywords

Askeri Harcama GSYH Sermaye Yatay Kesit Bağımlılığı Bootstrap Nedensellik

References

  • Alptekin, A. & P. Levine (2012), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: A Meta Analysis”, European Journal of Political Economy, 28, 636-650.
  • Altınok, H. & M.O. Arslan (2020), “The Relationship between Public Expenditures and Economic Growth in Southeastern European Countries: An Analysis of Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality”, Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetic Studies and Research, 54(3), 249-262.
  • Aye, G.C. et al. (2014), “Military Expenditure, Economic Growth and Structural Instability: A Case Study of South Africa”, Defence and Peace Economics, 72(4), 619-633.
  • Bai, B.J. & S. Ng (2004), “A Panic Attack on Unit Roots and Cointegration”, Econometrica, 72(4), 1127-1177.
  • Benoit, E. (1978), “Growth and Defense in Developing Countries”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26(2), 271-280.
  • Beswick, E. (2019), “EU Countries Increase Military Spending due to Growing perceptions of Russia Threat”, Report, Euronews, <https://www.euronews.com/2019/04/29/eu-countries-increase-military-spending-due-to-growing-perceptions-of-russia-threat-report>, 25.02.2020.
  • Biswas, B. & R. Ram (1986), “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34(2), 361-372.
  • Breusch, T. & A. Pagan (1980), “The Lagrange Multiplier Test and its Applications to Model Specification in Econometrics”, The Review of Economic Studies, 41(1), 239-253.
  • Cappelen, A. et al. (1984), “Military Spending and Economic Growth in the OECD Countries”, Journal of Peace Research, 21(4), 361-373.
  • Castells, M. (2008), Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi (2. ed., Vol. I), (Çev. E. Kılıç) İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Ceyhan, T. & A. Köstekçi (2021), “The Effect of Military Expenditures on Economic Growth and Unemployment: Evidence from Turkey”, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 31(2), 913-928.
  • Chang, T. et al. (2014), “Does Military Spending Really Matter for Economic Growth in China and G7 Countries: The Roles of Dependency and Heterogeneity”, Defence and Peace Economics, 25(2), 177-191.
  • Chowdhury, A.R. (1991), “A Causal Analysis of Defence Spending and Economic Growth”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 35(1), 80-97.
  • Çolak, O. & M.H. Özkaya (2021), “The Nexus Between External Debts and Military Expenditures for the Selected Transition Economies: A Panel Threshold Regression Approach”, Defence and Peace Economics, 32(7), 882-898.
  • Crane, K. (1987), Military Spending in Eastern Europe, Santa Monica: RAND.
  • Değer, S. & R. Smith (1983), “Military Expenditure and Growth in Less Developed Countries”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 27(2), 335-353.
  • Değer, S. (1986), “Economic Development and Defense Expenditure”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 35(1), 179-196.
  • Destek, M.A. & I. Okumus (2016), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in BRICS and MIST Countries: Evidence from Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis”, South-Eastern Europe Journal of Economics, (2), 175-186.
  • Destek, M.A. (2015), “Is the Causal Nexus of Military Expenditures and Economic Growth Asymmetric in G-6?”, Journal of Applied Research in Finance and Economics, 1(1), 1-8.
  • Dunne, J.P. & S. Perlo-Freeman (2003), “The Demand for Military Spending in Developing Countries: A Dynamic Panel Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 14(6), 461-474.
  • Dunne, P. et al. (2005), “Models of Military Expenditure and Growth: A Critical Review”, Defence and Peace Economics, 16(6), 449-461.
  • Esener, S.C. & I. Evren (2015), “Expanding Effects of Military Expenditures on External Debt in Developing Countries”, Journal of Business, Economics & Finance, 4(4), 617-632.
  • Frederiksen, P.C. & R.E. Looney (1983), “Defence Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries”, Armed Forces & Society, 9(4), 633-645.
  • Granger, C. (1969), “Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods”, Econometrica, 37(3), 424-438.
  • Granger, C.W. (1980), “Testing for Causality: A Personal Viewpoint”, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, (2), 329-352.
  • Gül, E. & M. Torusdağ (2020), “Defence Expenditures and Inflation Relationship: 1990-2018 NATO Countries Case”, International Journal of Contemporary Economics and Administrative Sciences, 10(2), 319-334.
  • Hatemi-J, A. et al. (2017), “Asymmetric Causality between Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Top Six Defense Spenders”, Quality & Quantity, 52(3), 1193-1207.
  • Heo, U. (1999), “Defense Spending and Economic Growth in South Korea: The Indirect Link”, Journal of Peace Research, 36(6), 699-708.
  • Joerding, W. (1986), “Economic Growth and Defense Spending: Granger Causality”, Journal of Development Economics, 21, 35-40.
  • Kar, M. et al. (2011), “Financial Development and Economic Growth Nexus in the MENA Countries: Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis”, Economic Modelling, 28, 685-693.
  • Karadam, D.Y. et al. (2017), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Middle Eastern Countries and Turkey: A Non-linear Panel Data Approach”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28(6), 719-730.
  • Karagöl, E. & S. Palaz (2004), “Does Defence Expenditure Deter Economic Growth in Turkey? A Cointegration Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 15(3), 289-298.
  • Koçbulut, Ö. & H. Altıntaş (2021), “Savunma Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: OECD Ülkeleri İçin Panel Eşik Değer Analizi”, Yönetim ve Ekonomi, 28(2), 533-555.
  • Kohler, G. (1979), “Toward a General Theory of Armament”, Journal of Peace Research, 16(2), 117-135.
  • Kollias, C. et al. (2004), “Defence Expenditure and Economic Growth in the European Union A Causality Analysis”, Journal of Policy Modeling, 26, 553-569.
  • Kónya, L. (2006), “Exports and Growth: Granger Causality Analysis on OECD Countries with a Panel Data Approach”, Economic Modelling, 23, 978-992.
  • Kuhn, T. (1963), “The Function of Dogma in Scientific Research”, in: A.C. Crombie (ed.), Scientific Change (347-369), London: Basic Books.
  • Kusi, N.K. (1994), “Economic Growth and Defense Spending in Developing Countries: A Causal Analysis”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 38(1), 152-159.
  • Lim, D. (1983), “Another Look at Growth and Defense in Less Developed Countries”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 31(2), 377-384.
  • Liu, T.-Y. et al. (2019), “Better is the Neighbor?”, Defence and Peace Economics, 30(6), 706-718.
  • Menyah, K. et al. (2014), “Financial Development, Trade Openness and Economic Growth in African Countries: New Insights from a Panel Causality Approach”, Economic Modelling, (37), 386-394.
  • Öcal, N. & J. Yıldırım (2009), “Arms Race Between Turkey and Greece: A Threshold Cointegration Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 20(2), 123-129.
  • Özşahin, Ş. & G. Üçler (2021), “The Relationship between Defense Expenditures and Employment in NATO Member States: Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, İstanbul Journal of Economics, 71(1), 231-249.
  • Pan, C.-I. et al. (2015), “Military Spending and Economic Growth in the Middle East Countries: Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26(4), 443-456.
  • Pesaran, M.H. & T. Yamagata (2008), “Testing Slope Homogeneity in Large Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142, 50-93.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2006), “Estimation and Inference in Large Heterogeneous Panels with a Multifactor Error Structure”, Econometrica, 74(4), 967-1012.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2021), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Empirical Economics, (60), 13-50.
  • Pesaran, M.H. et al. (2008), “A Bias-Adjusted LM test of Error Cross-Section Independence”, Econometrics Journal, 11, 105-127.
  • Ratner, B. (2009), “The Correlation Coefficient: Its Values Range Between +1/-1, or Do They?”, Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 17, 139-142.
  • Rosh, R.M. (1988), “Third World Militarization: Security Webs and the States They Ensnare”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 32(4), 671-698.
  • Saba, C.S. & N. Ngepah (2019), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Heterogeneous Panel of African Countries”, Economic Research-Ekonomska Istrazivanja, 32(1), 3586-3606.
  • SIPRI (2021), SIPRI Military Expenditure Database, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, <https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex>, 20.07.2021.
  • Smith, R.P. (1980), “Military Expenditure and Investment in OECD Countries, 1954-1973”, Journal of Comparative Economics, 4, 19-32.
  • Topcu, M. & İ. Aras (2017), “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Central and Eastern EU Countries: Evidence from the Post-Cold War Era”, European Review, 25(3), 453-462.
  • Topcu, M. (2018), “Türkiye'de Askeri Harcamalar ile Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Bir Analizi (1960-2016)”, Maliye Dergisi, 174, 175-202.
  • Topcu, M. et al. (2013), “A New Look at Military Expenditure-Growth Nexus in the EU: Old Members vs New Members”, International Journal of Economic Sciences, 2(3), 143-151.
  • Treddenick, J.M. (1996), “Defence and Economics: Some Issues for the Post-Cold War World”, The Canadian Journal of Economics, 29(2), 644-648.
  • Tütüncü, A. & B. Şahingöz (2020), “Arms Race Between Turkey and Greece: Time-Varying Causality Analysis”, Sosyoekonomi, 28(45), 25-36.
  • WDI (2021), World Development Indicators, The World Bank, <https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators>, 15.07.2021.
  • Westerlund, J. & D.L. Edgerton (2008), “A Simple Test for Cointegration in Dependent Panels with Structural Breaks”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 70(5), 665-704.
  • Westerlund, J. (2007), “Testing for Error Correction in Panel Data”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 69(6), 709-748.
  • Wooldridge, J.M. (2013), Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach (5. ed.), Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning.
  • Yıldırım, J. & S. Sezgin (2003), “Military Expenditure and Employment in Turkey”, Defence and Peace Economics, 14(2), 129-139.
  • Yıldırım, J. et al. (2005), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Middle Eastern Countries: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 16(4), 283-295.
  • Zellner, A. (1962), “An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regressions and Tests for Aggregation Bias”, Journal of the American Statistical Association, (57), 348-368.
  • Zhong, M. et al. (2015), “The Causal Nexus Between Military Spending and Unemployment in the G7: A Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26(6), 609-622.
  • Zhong, M. et al. (2016), “The Nexus Between Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in the BRICS and the US: An Empirical Note”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28(5), 609-620.

The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values

Year 2022, Volume: 30 Issue: 52, 157 - 181, 28.04.2022

Mesut Alper Gezer

https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09
Cited By: 6

Abstract

This study deals with the relationship between per capita real GDP, per capita real military expenditure, and per capita real capital in 12 NATO member countries from 1995-2020. The country group is chosen from Central and Eastern European countries depending on their common properties. Bai and Ng (2004) PANIC, Westerlund and Edgerton (2008) structural break co-integration, and Konya (2006) bootstrap panel causality tests were applied to consider cross-sectional dependence, respectively. Meanwhile, the convergence of the 12 countries’ military expenditure in Russia is discussed. It is seen that there is weak evidence for this convergence. According to bootstrap panel causality findings, there is strong evidence in 5 countries based on the non-existence of causality. Therefore, Neutrality Hypothesis is valid in Croatia, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Turkey.

Keywords

Military Expenditure GDP Capital Cross-Sectional Dependence Bootstrap Causality

References

  • Alptekin, A. & P. Levine (2012), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: A Meta Analysis”, European Journal of Political Economy, 28, 636-650.
  • Altınok, H. & M.O. Arslan (2020), “The Relationship between Public Expenditures and Economic Growth in Southeastern European Countries: An Analysis of Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality”, Economic Computation and Economic Cybernetic Studies and Research, 54(3), 249-262.
  • Aye, G.C. et al. (2014), “Military Expenditure, Economic Growth and Structural Instability: A Case Study of South Africa”, Defence and Peace Economics, 72(4), 619-633.
  • Bai, B.J. & S. Ng (2004), “A Panic Attack on Unit Roots and Cointegration”, Econometrica, 72(4), 1127-1177.
  • Benoit, E. (1978), “Growth and Defense in Developing Countries”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 26(2), 271-280.
  • Beswick, E. (2019), “EU Countries Increase Military Spending due to Growing perceptions of Russia Threat”, Report, Euronews, <https://www.euronews.com/2019/04/29/eu-countries-increase-military-spending-due-to-growing-perceptions-of-russia-threat-report>, 25.02.2020.
  • Biswas, B. & R. Ram (1986), “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Less Developed Countries: An Augmented Model and Further Evidence”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 34(2), 361-372.
  • Breusch, T. & A. Pagan (1980), “The Lagrange Multiplier Test and its Applications to Model Specification in Econometrics”, The Review of Economic Studies, 41(1), 239-253.
  • Cappelen, A. et al. (1984), “Military Spending and Economic Growth in the OECD Countries”, Journal of Peace Research, 21(4), 361-373.
  • Castells, M. (2008), Ağ Toplumunun Yükselişi (2. ed., Vol. I), (Çev. E. Kılıç) İstanbul: İstanbul Bilgi Üniversitesi Yayınları.
  • Ceyhan, T. & A. Köstekçi (2021), “The Effect of Military Expenditures on Economic Growth and Unemployment: Evidence from Turkey”, Fırat Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 31(2), 913-928.
  • Chang, T. et al. (2014), “Does Military Spending Really Matter for Economic Growth in China and G7 Countries: The Roles of Dependency and Heterogeneity”, Defence and Peace Economics, 25(2), 177-191.
  • Chowdhury, A.R. (1991), “A Causal Analysis of Defence Spending and Economic Growth”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 35(1), 80-97.
  • Çolak, O. & M.H. Özkaya (2021), “The Nexus Between External Debts and Military Expenditures for the Selected Transition Economies: A Panel Threshold Regression Approach”, Defence and Peace Economics, 32(7), 882-898.
  • Crane, K. (1987), Military Spending in Eastern Europe, Santa Monica: RAND.
  • Değer, S. & R. Smith (1983), “Military Expenditure and Growth in Less Developed Countries”, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 27(2), 335-353.
  • Değer, S. (1986), “Economic Development and Defense Expenditure”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 35(1), 179-196.
  • Destek, M.A. & I. Okumus (2016), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in BRICS and MIST Countries: Evidence from Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis”, South-Eastern Europe Journal of Economics, (2), 175-186.
  • Destek, M.A. (2015), “Is the Causal Nexus of Military Expenditures and Economic Growth Asymmetric in G-6?”, Journal of Applied Research in Finance and Economics, 1(1), 1-8.
  • Dunne, J.P. & S. Perlo-Freeman (2003), “The Demand for Military Spending in Developing Countries: A Dynamic Panel Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 14(6), 461-474.
  • Dunne, P. et al. (2005), “Models of Military Expenditure and Growth: A Critical Review”, Defence and Peace Economics, 16(6), 449-461.
  • Esener, S.C. & I. Evren (2015), “Expanding Effects of Military Expenditures on External Debt in Developing Countries”, Journal of Business, Economics & Finance, 4(4), 617-632.
  • Frederiksen, P.C. & R.E. Looney (1983), “Defence Expenditures and Economic Growth in Developing Countries”, Armed Forces & Society, 9(4), 633-645.
  • Granger, C. (1969), “Investigating Causal Relations by Econometric Models and Cross-Spectral Methods”, Econometrica, 37(3), 424-438.
  • Granger, C.W. (1980), “Testing for Causality: A Personal Viewpoint”, Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control, (2), 329-352.
  • Gül, E. & M. Torusdağ (2020), “Defence Expenditures and Inflation Relationship: 1990-2018 NATO Countries Case”, International Journal of Contemporary Economics and Administrative Sciences, 10(2), 319-334.
  • Hatemi-J, A. et al. (2017), “Asymmetric Causality between Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Top Six Defense Spenders”, Quality & Quantity, 52(3), 1193-1207.
  • Heo, U. (1999), “Defense Spending and Economic Growth in South Korea: The Indirect Link”, Journal of Peace Research, 36(6), 699-708.
  • Joerding, W. (1986), “Economic Growth and Defense Spending: Granger Causality”, Journal of Development Economics, 21, 35-40.
  • Kar, M. et al. (2011), “Financial Development and Economic Growth Nexus in the MENA Countries: Bootstrap Panel Granger Causality Analysis”, Economic Modelling, 28, 685-693.
  • Karadam, D.Y. et al. (2017), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Middle Eastern Countries and Turkey: A Non-linear Panel Data Approach”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28(6), 719-730.
  • Karagöl, E. & S. Palaz (2004), “Does Defence Expenditure Deter Economic Growth in Turkey? A Cointegration Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 15(3), 289-298.
  • Koçbulut, Ö. & H. Altıntaş (2021), “Savunma Harcamaları ve Ekonomik Büyüme İlişkisi: OECD Ülkeleri İçin Panel Eşik Değer Analizi”, Yönetim ve Ekonomi, 28(2), 533-555.
  • Kohler, G. (1979), “Toward a General Theory of Armament”, Journal of Peace Research, 16(2), 117-135.
  • Kollias, C. et al. (2004), “Defence Expenditure and Economic Growth in the European Union A Causality Analysis”, Journal of Policy Modeling, 26, 553-569.
  • Kónya, L. (2006), “Exports and Growth: Granger Causality Analysis on OECD Countries with a Panel Data Approach”, Economic Modelling, 23, 978-992.
  • Kuhn, T. (1963), “The Function of Dogma in Scientific Research”, in: A.C. Crombie (ed.), Scientific Change (347-369), London: Basic Books.
  • Kusi, N.K. (1994), “Economic Growth and Defense Spending in Developing Countries: A Causal Analysis”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 38(1), 152-159.
  • Lim, D. (1983), “Another Look at Growth and Defense in Less Developed Countries”, Economic Development and Cultural Change, 31(2), 377-384.
  • Liu, T.-Y. et al. (2019), “Better is the Neighbor?”, Defence and Peace Economics, 30(6), 706-718.
  • Menyah, K. et al. (2014), “Financial Development, Trade Openness and Economic Growth in African Countries: New Insights from a Panel Causality Approach”, Economic Modelling, (37), 386-394.
  • Öcal, N. & J. Yıldırım (2009), “Arms Race Between Turkey and Greece: A Threshold Cointegration Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 20(2), 123-129.
  • Özşahin, Ş. & G. Üçler (2021), “The Relationship between Defense Expenditures and Employment in NATO Member States: Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, İstanbul Journal of Economics, 71(1), 231-249.
  • Pan, C.-I. et al. (2015), “Military Spending and Economic Growth in the Middle East Countries: Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26(4), 443-456.
  • Pesaran, M.H. & T. Yamagata (2008), “Testing Slope Homogeneity in Large Panels”, Journal of Econometrics, 142, 50-93.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2006), “Estimation and Inference in Large Heterogeneous Panels with a Multifactor Error Structure”, Econometrica, 74(4), 967-1012.
  • Pesaran, M.H. (2021), “General Diagnostic Tests for Cross Section Dependence in Panels”, Empirical Economics, (60), 13-50.
  • Pesaran, M.H. et al. (2008), “A Bias-Adjusted LM test of Error Cross-Section Independence”, Econometrics Journal, 11, 105-127.
  • Ratner, B. (2009), “The Correlation Coefficient: Its Values Range Between +1/-1, or Do They?”, Journal of Targeting, Measurement and Analysis for Marketing, 17, 139-142.
  • Rosh, R.M. (1988), “Third World Militarization: Security Webs and the States They Ensnare”, The Journal of Conflict Resolution, 32(4), 671-698.
  • Saba, C.S. & N. Ngepah (2019), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth: Evidence from a Heterogeneous Panel of African Countries”, Economic Research-Ekonomska Istrazivanja, 32(1), 3586-3606.
  • SIPRI (2021), SIPRI Military Expenditure Database, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, <https://www.sipri.org/databases/milex>, 20.07.2021.
  • Smith, R.P. (1980), “Military Expenditure and Investment in OECD Countries, 1954-1973”, Journal of Comparative Economics, 4, 19-32.
  • Topcu, M. & İ. Aras (2017), “Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in Central and Eastern EU Countries: Evidence from the Post-Cold War Era”, European Review, 25(3), 453-462.
  • Topcu, M. (2018), “Türkiye'de Askeri Harcamalar ile Ekonomik Büyüme Arasındaki İlişkinin Bir Analizi (1960-2016)”, Maliye Dergisi, 174, 175-202.
  • Topcu, M. et al. (2013), “A New Look at Military Expenditure-Growth Nexus in the EU: Old Members vs New Members”, International Journal of Economic Sciences, 2(3), 143-151.
  • Treddenick, J.M. (1996), “Defence and Economics: Some Issues for the Post-Cold War World”, The Canadian Journal of Economics, 29(2), 644-648.
  • Tütüncü, A. & B. Şahingöz (2020), “Arms Race Between Turkey and Greece: Time-Varying Causality Analysis”, Sosyoekonomi, 28(45), 25-36.
  • WDI (2021), World Development Indicators, The World Bank, <https://datacatalog.worldbank.org/dataset/world-development-indicators>, 15.07.2021.
  • Westerlund, J. & D.L. Edgerton (2008), “A Simple Test for Cointegration in Dependent Panels with Structural Breaks”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 70(5), 665-704.
  • Westerlund, J. (2007), “Testing for Error Correction in Panel Data”, Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 69(6), 709-748.
  • Wooldridge, J.M. (2013), Introductory Econometrics: A Modern Approach (5. ed.), Ohio: South-Western Cengage Learning.
  • Yıldırım, J. & S. Sezgin (2003), “Military Expenditure and Employment in Turkey”, Defence and Peace Economics, 14(2), 129-139.
  • Yıldırım, J. et al. (2005), “Military Expenditure and Economic Growth in Middle Eastern Countries: A Dynamic Panel Data Analysis”, Defence and Peace Economics, 16(4), 283-295.
  • Zellner, A. (1962), “An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regressions and Tests for Aggregation Bias”, Journal of the American Statistical Association, (57), 348-368.
  • Zhong, M. et al. (2015), “The Causal Nexus Between Military Spending and Unemployment in the G7: A Bootstrap Panel Causality Test”, Defence and Peace Economics, 26(6), 609-622.
  • Zhong, M. et al. (2016), “The Nexus Between Military Expenditures and Economic Growth in the BRICS and the US: An Empirical Note”, Defence and Peace Economics, 28(5), 609-620.
There are 67 citations in total.

Details

Primary Language English
Subjects Economics
Journal Section Articles
Authors

Mesut Alper Gezer 0000-0001-9157-8833

Publication Date April 28, 2022
Submission Date August 5, 2021
Published in Issue Year 2022 Volume: 30 Issue: 52

Cite

APA Gezer, M. A. (2022). The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values. Sosyoekonomi, 30(52), 157-181. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09
AMA Gezer MA. The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values. Sosyoekonomi. April 2022;30(52):157-181. doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09
Chicago Gezer, Mesut Alper. “The Causality Relationship Between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries Based on Per Capita Values”. Sosyoekonomi 30, no. 52 (April 2022): 157-81. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09.
EndNote Gezer MA (April 1, 2022) The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values. Sosyoekonomi 30 52 157–181.
IEEE M. A. Gezer, “The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values”, Sosyoekonomi, vol. 30, no. 52, pp. 157–181, 2022, doi: 10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09.
ISNAD Gezer, Mesut Alper. “The Causality Relationship Between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries Based on Per Capita Values”. Sosyoekonomi 30/52 (April 2022), 157-181. https://doi.org/10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09.
JAMA Gezer MA. The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values. Sosyoekonomi. 2022;30:157–181.
MLA Gezer, Mesut Alper. “The Causality Relationship Between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries Based on Per Capita Values”. Sosyoekonomi, vol. 30, no. 52, 2022, pp. 157-81, doi:10.17233/sosyoekonomi.2022.02.09.
Vancouver Gezer MA. The Causality Relationship between Military Expenditure and GDP in 12 NATO Member Countries based on Per Capita Values. Sosyoekonomi. 2022;30(52):157-81.

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