Diplomatic Protection and Consular Assistance in Multiple Nationality

Year 2024, Issue: 59, 345 - 386, 12.07.2024

Bilge Erson Asar Gizem Perçin

https://doi.org/10.54049/taad.1515066

Abstract

The rights and obligations arising from nationality, defined as a legal bond between the state and the individual, primarily occur in the country where the state of nationality exercises its sovereignty. Nevertheless, the increasing numbers of population mobility has resulted in many individuals residing in countries where they have lack of citizenship. These individuals, who are recognized as foreigners in terms of the state in which they reside, may have to defend their rights within the legal order of that state and seek redress for damages in case their rights are violated. In those states, where foreigners are also foreign to the legal system, as a rule, the consular assistance they need to defend their rights and the diplomatic protection they seek for the redress of their violated rights can be granted to them by the state to which they have nationality. In some cases where the foreigner has the nationality of more than one State, it remains to be resolved which State of nationality will provide both consular assistance and diplomatic protection, or whether both States of nationality can take action. Moreover, whether multiple/dual nationality States can claim consular assistance and diplomatic protection against each other is another problem. In this study, both the ability of each State of nationality to provide consular assistance and diplomatic protection in cases where the individual is a foreigner in terms of the receiving State and the state of violation, and the possibility of such assistance and protection between the States of nationality of the individual are evaluated, and the conditions and criteria required in this regard are emphasized. In this context, in terms of diplomatic protection, the main argument of the study is that in cases where multiple nationality states act separately, violating state can carry out subsequent processes with the effective (predominant) nationality state; although, it is not necessary to apply such a criterion in cases where nationality states act together. In terms of consular assistance, given that the institution in question is based on the difficulties that an individual may face in a legal system to which he or she is a foreigner, it is accepted that the right of multiple nationality States to provide consular assistance in receiving State, either jointly or separately, is in accordance with the principle of sovereign equality; however, there is no obligation to provide consular assistance for a person arrested in one of the nationality States.

Keywords

Multiple nationality, dual nationality, diplomatic protection, consular assistance, effective nationality, genuine link, LaGrand, Avena, Jadhav, Nottebohm, Diallo

Ethical Statement

This article is not subject to Ethics Committee permission.

DİPLOMATİK KORUMA VE KONSOLOSLUK YARDIMINDA ÇOKLU VATANDAŞLIK

Abstract

Devlet ile birey arasında hukuki bir bağ olarak tanımlanan vatandaşlığa bağlı hak ve yükümlülükler, öncelikle vatandaşlık devletinin egemenlik yetkisini kullandığı ülke üzerinde doğmaktadır. Ancak günümüzde yoğun bir artış gösteren nüfus hareketliliği, birçok bireyin vatandaşlık bağı ile bağlı olmadığı devletlerin ülkelerinde bulunmaları sonucunu doğurmuştur. Bulundukları devlet bakımından yabancı statüsünde kabul edilen bu bireyler, o devletin hukuk düzeni içerisinde haklarını savunmak, haklarının ihlal edilmesi halinde ise zararlarının giderilmesini talep etmek zorunda kalabilmektedir. Yabancıların, hukuk sistemine de yabancı oldukları bu devletlerde, haklarını savunmak bakımından ihtiyaç duydukları konsolosluk yardımı ve ihlal edilen haklarının giderimi için aradıkları diplomatik koruma, kural olarak, vatandaşlık bağı ile bağlı oldukları devlet tarafından kendilerine verilebilmektedir. Ancak yabancının birden fazla devlet vatandaşlığına sahip olması durumunda, gerek konsolosluk yardımı gerek diplomatik korumanın hangi vatandaşlık devleti tarafından sağlanacağı ya da vatandaşlık devletlerinin her ikisinin de harekete geçip geçemeyeceği çözüme kavuşturulması gereken meselelerdir. Ayrıca çoklu vatandaşlık devletlerinin konsolosluk yardımı ile diplomatik korumayı birbirlerine karşı ileri sürüp süremeyecekleri de bu konuda başka bir sorun olarak ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, hem bireyin kabul eden devlet ve ihlal devleti bakımından yabancı olduğu durumlarda her bir vatandaşlık devletinin konsolosluk yardımı ve diplomatik korumada bulunabilmesi, hem de bireyin vatandaşlık devletleri arasında bu yardım ve korumanın mümkün olup olmadığı değerlendirilmiş; konuyla ilgili aranan koşul ve kriterler üzerinde durulmuştur. Bu kapsamda çalışmanın diplomatik koruma bakımından, temel argümanı çoklu vatandaşlık devletlerinin ayrı ayrı hareket ettiği hallerde ihlal devletinin etkin vatandaşlık devleti ile sonraki süreçleri yürütebileceği; ancak vatandaşlık devletlerinin birlikte hareket ettikleri durumlarda böyle bir kriterin uygulanmasının gerekli olmadığıdır. Temel amacı, yabancı olduğu bir hukuk sisteminde karşılaşabileceği zorluklar karşısında bireyi desteklemek olan konsolosluk yardımında ise, çoklu vatandaşlık devletlerinin, kabul eden devlette, birlikte veya ayrı ayrı konsolosluk yardımı sağlama haklarının devletlerin egemen eşitlik ilkesine uygun olduğu; bununla birlikte vatandaşlık devletlerinden birinde özgürlüğü kısıtlanan birey bakımından konsolosluk yardımının sağlanması yükümlülüğünün bulunmadığı kabul edilmedir.

Keywords

Çoklu vatandaşlık, çifte vatandaşlık, diplomatik koruma, konsolosluk yardımı, etkin vatandaşlık, gerçek bağ, LaGrand, Avena, Jadhav, Nottebohm, Diallo

Ethical Statement

Bu makale Etik Kurul iznine tabi değildir.

References

• Akkutay Aİ, Diplomatik Koruma ve İnsan Hakları İlişkisi (Adalet 2013)
• Aksar Y, Teoride ve Uygulamada Uluslararası Hukuku II (Seçkin 2013)
• Albayrak G (çev.), ‘Diplomatik Koruma Hakkında Taslak Maddeler’ [2019] Yıldırım Beyazıt Hukuk Dergisi 501–507
• Amerasinghe CF, Diplomatic Protection (Oxford University Press 2008)
• Angelet N, ‘Consular Treaties’, The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online, 2023)
• Arevalo-Ramirez WO and MacLean RJB, ‘Dual Nationality and International Law in Times of Globalization. Challenges and Opportunities for Consular Assistance and Diplomatic Protection in Recent Cases’ (2020) 17 Brazilian Journal of International Law 288–309
• Aybay R, Tarih ve Hukuk Açısından Konsolosluk (2nd edn, Literatür Yayıncılık 2020)
• Aybay R, Özbek N and Ersen Perçin G, Vatandaşlık Hukuku (Siyasal Kitabevi 2019)
• Bal A, ‘Devletin Uluslararası Sorumluluğa Ağırlıklı Olarak Diplomatik Himaye Çerçevesinde Başvurması: İç Başvuru Yollarının Tüketilmesi Şartının Uygulanabilirliği’ (2021) 79 İstanbul Hukuk Mecmuası / Istanbul Law Review 543–597
• Crawford J, State Responsibility: The General Part (1st edn, Cambridge University Press 2013)
• — —, Brownlie’s Principles of Public International Law (9th Edition, Oxford University Press 2019)
• Demirkol B, ‘Uluslararası Hukukta Dikkate Alınan Vatandaşlık: Gerçek Kişilerde “Etkin Vatandaşlık” Sorunsalı’ [2015] Galatasaray Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 159–193
• Denza E and Wickremasinghe C, ‘Consular Access and Protection’ in Ivor Roberts (ed), Satow’s diplomatic practice (Eighth edition, Oxford University Press 2023)
• — —, ‘Consuls: Appointment, Functions, and Status’ in Ivor Roberts (ed), Satow’s diplomatic practice (Eighth edition, Oxford University Press 2023)
• Doğan V, Türk Vatandaşlık Hukuku (19th edn, Rehber Yayıncılık 2023)
• Đorđeska M, General Principles of Law Recognized by Civilized Nations (1922-2018) (Brill | Nijhoff 2020)
• Dugard J, ‘Diplomatic Protection’ in James Crawford and others (eds), The law of international responsibility (Oxford University Press 2010)
• — —, ‘Diplomatic Protection’, The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online, 2021)
• Dupuy P-M and Hoss C, ‘Avena and Other Mexican Nationals Case (Mexico v United States of America)’, Max Planck Encyclopedias of International Law (online, 2009)
• Erdem BB, Türk Vatandaşlık Hukuku (9th edn, Beta Yayınevi 2022)
• Forcese C, ‘The Capacity to Protect: Diplomatic Protection of Dual Nationals in the “War on Terror”’ (2006) 17 European Journal of International Law 369–394
• Forlati S, ‘Nationality as a Human Right’ in Alessandra Annoni and Serena Forlati (eds), The Changing Role of Nationality in International Law (Routledge 2013)
• Güngör G, Tabiiyet Hukuku (9th edn, Yetkin Yayınları 2021)
• Hailbronner K and others, Staatsangehörigkeitsrecht (7th edn, CH Beck 2022)
• Henrard K, ‘The Shifting Parameters of Nationality’ (2018) 65 Netherlands International Law Review 269–297
• Hernández GI, International Law (Oxford university press 2019)
• Karazivan N, ‘Diplomatic Protection: Taking Human Rights Extraterritorially’ (2007) 44 Canadian Yearbook of international Law/Annuaire canadien de droit international 299–352
• Lee LT and Quigley JB, Consular Law and Practice (3. ed, Oxford Univ Press 2008)
• Leigh GIF, ‘Nationality and Diplomatic Protection’ (1971) 20 International and Comparative Law Quarterly 453–475
• Marques RRC, ‘The Right to Access Consular Assistance and Protection and Its Relevance to the Architecture of a Safe, Orderly, and Regular Migration’ (2021) 23 Interventions 313–325
• Meray S, Devletler Hukukuna Giriş İkinci Cilt (4th edn, Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi 1975)
• Michigan Law Review, ‘Claims of Dual Nationals in the Modern Era: The Iran-United Claims of Dual Nationals in the Modern Era: The Iran-United States Claims Tribunal’ (1984) 83 Michigan Law Review 597–624
• Nomer E, Türk Vatandaşlık Hukuku (30th edn, Filiz Kitabevi 2022)
• Öktem E, ‘The Legal Notion of Nationality in the Turkish Republic: From Ottoman Legacy to Modern Aberrations’ (2017) 53 Middle Eastern Studies 638–655
• Paweł Czubik and Szwedo P, ‘Consular Functions’, The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online, 2013)
• Pazarcı H, Uluslararası Hukuk Dersleri 2. Kitap (12. baskı, Turhan Kitabevi 2021)
• Peters A, Beyond Human Rights: The Legal Status of the Individual in International Law (Jonathan Huston tr, 1st edn, Cambridge University Press 2016)
• Pisillo Mazzeschi R, ‘Impact on the Law of Diplomatic Protection’ in Menno T Kamminga and Martin Scheinin (eds), The Impact of Human Rights Law on General International Law (Oxford University Press 2009)
• Quigley JB, Foreigners on America’s Death Rows (1st edn, Cambridge University Press 2018)
• Quigley JB, Aceves WJ and Shank SA, The Law of Consular Access: A Documentary Guide (Routledge 2010)
• Sironi A, ‘Nationality of Individuals in Public International Law: A Functional Approach’ in Alessandra Annoni and Serena Forlati (eds), The changing role of nationality in international law (Routledge 2013)
• Spiro PJ, ‘Multiple Nationality’, The Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law (online, 2008)
• Spiro PJ, ‘Dual Citizenship as Human Right’ (2010) 8 International Journal of Constitutional Law 111–130
• Spiro PJ, At Home in Two Countries: The Past and Future of Dual Citizenship (New York University Press 2016)
• Stephens HM, ‘Nationality and History’ (1916) 21 The American Historical Review 225–236
• Stewart DP, ‘The Emergent Human Right to Consular Notification, Access and Assistance’ in Andreas Von Arnauld, Kerstin Von Der Decken and Mart Susi (eds), The Cambridge Handbook of New Human Rights (1st edn, Cambridge University Press 2020)
• Tahiroğlu B and Erdoğmuş B, Roma Hukuku Dersleri (17th edn, Der Kitabevi 2023)
• Tanrıbilir FB, ‘Avrupa Vatandaşlık Sözleşmesi ve Türk Hukuku’ 22 Milletlerarası Hukuk ve Milletlerarası Özel Hukuk Bülteni 791–818
• Turhan T and Tanrıbilir FB, Vatandaşlık Hukuku (4th edn, Yetkin Yayınları 2017)
• Uluocak N, Türk Vatandaşlık Hukuku (Filiz Kitabevi 1989)
• Vattel E de, The Law of Nations, or, Principles of the Law of Nature, Applied to the Conduct and Affairs of Nations and Sovereigns, with Three Early Essays on the Origin and Nature of Natural Law and on Luxury (Bela Kapossy and Richard Whatmore eds, Liberty Fund 2008)
• Vermeer-Künzli A, ‘Restricting Discretion: Judicial Review of Diplomatic Protection’ (2006) 75 Nordic Journal of International Law 279–307
• Vermeer-Kunzli A, ‘A Matter of Interest: Diplomatic Protection and State Responsibility Erga Omnes’ (2007) 56 The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 553–581
• Vermeer-Künzli A, ‘As If: The Legal Fiction in Diplomatic Protection’ (2007) 18 European Journal of International Law 37–68
• — —, ‘Nationality and Diplomatic Protection- A Reappraisal’ in Alessandra Annoni and Serena Forlati (eds), The changing role of nationality in international law (1. publ, Routledge 2013)
• ——, ‘Diplomatic Protection and Consular Assistance of Migrants’ in Vincent Chetail and Céline Bauloz (eds), Research Handbook on International Law and Migration (Edward Elgar Publishing 2014)
• Warbrick C and McGoldrick D, ‘Diplomatic Representations and Diplomatic Protection’ (2002) 51 The International and Comparative Law Quarterly 723–733
• Whitesell BP, ‘Diamond in the Rough: Mining Article 36(1)(b) of the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations for an Individual Right to Due Process’ (2004) 54 Duke Law Journal 587–619
• Wouters J and others, International Law: A European Perspective (Hart publishing 2019)
• Yılmaz I, ‘Gerçek Kişilerin Vatandaşlığında “Gerçek Bağlantı” İlkesi: Nottebohm Romantizminin Sonu’ (2021) 0 Galatasaray Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi 965–1011
• Yüksel C and Baran D, ‘Uluslararası Adalet Divanı Kararları Işığında Bireysel Hakların Diplomatik ve Konsüler Haklar Bağlamında Korunması’ (2022) 10 Journal of Penal Law and Criminology / Ceza Hukuku ve Kriminoloji Dergisi 1–40
• İnternet Kaynakları
• ‘7 FAM 410 Introduction to Arrest and Detention, CT:CON-975; 04-06-2023 (Office of Origin: CA/OCS)’ <https://fam.state.gov/fam/07fam/07fam0410.html#M416_3> Erişim Tarihi 21 May 2024
• ‘Countries That Allow Dual Citizenship’ (WorldAtlas, 21 December 2020) <https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-that-allow-dual-citizenship.html> Erişim Tarihi 19 May 2024
• ‘Countries That Don’t Recognize Dual Citizenship’ (WorldAtlas, 23 May 2019) <https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/countries-that-don-t-recognize-dual-citizenship.html> Erişim Tarihi 19 May 2024
• ‘Diplomatic and Consular Protection’ <https://www.eda.admin.ch/eda/en/home/foreign-policy/international-law/respect-promotion/diplomatic-consular-protection.html> Erişim Tarihi 15 May 2024
• ‘Dual Citizenship Countries List 2024: Where and How to Get Dual Nationality?’ (Immigrant Invest, 23 August 2022) <https://immigrantinvest.com/blog/countries-that-allow-dual-citizenship-en/> Erişim Tarihi 19 May 2024
• ‘Huseyin Celil | Amnesty International Canada’ <https://amnesty.ca/huseyin-celil/> Erişim Tarihi 24 May 2024
• Uluslararası Belgeler
• ‘Summaries of the Work of the International Law Commission - Diplomatic Protection’ <https://legal.un.org/ilc/summaries/9_8.shtml> Erişim Tarihi 17 May 2024
• ‘Vienna Convention on Consular Relations, United Nations Treaty Collection’ <https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetails.aspx?src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=III-6&chapter=3> Erişim Tarihi 27 May 2024
• ILC, ‘Draft Articles on Consular Relations, with Commentaries’ (United Nations 1961) Report of the Commission to the General Assembly
• — —, ‘First Report on Diplomatic Protection, by Mr. John R. Dugard, Special Rapporteur’ (International Law Commission 2000) A/CN.4/506 and Add. 1
• — —, ‘Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts with Commentaries’ (International Law Commission 2001) UN Doc A/56/10
• — —, ‘Draft Articles on Diplomatic Protection with Commentaries’ (United Nations 2006) A/61/10
• — —, ‘Report of the Commission to the General Assembly on the Work of Its 58th Session’ (International Law Commission 2006) A/CN.4/SER.A/2006/Add.1(Part2)
• International Law Institute, ‘Principles Relating to Conflicts of Nationality Laws (Naturalization and Expatriation), Cambridge Session- 1895’ <https://www.idi-iil.org/app/uploads/2017/06/1895_camb_02_fr.pdf> Erişim Tarihi 19 May 2024
• American Convention on Human Rights 22 November 1969 (OASTS No 36, 1144 UNTS 123)
• Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union, 26.10.2012 Official Journal of the European Union C 326/391
• Consolidated Version of the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union, 7.6.2016 Official Journal of the European Union C 202, p. 44
• Convention on Certain Questions Relating to the Conflict of Nationality Law 13 April 1930 (179 League of Nations Treaty Series (LNTS) 89)
• Convention on the Rights of the Child 20 November 1989 (1577 UNTS 3)
• Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes Between States and Nationals of Other States, 575 UNTS 159 18 March 1965
• Council Directive (EU) 2015/637 on the coordination and cooperation measures to facilitate consular protection for unrepresented citizens of the Union in third countries and repealing Decision 95/553/EC, 24.4.2015, Official Journal of the European Union L 106/1
• Council of Europe, European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, as amended by Protocols Nos. 11,14 and 15 4 November 1950
• European Convention on Nationality, European Treaty Series (ETS) No. 166 6 November 1997
• International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 16 December 1966 (999 UNTS 171)
• Konsolosluk İlişkileri Hakkında Viyana Sözleşmesi (Vienna Convention on Consular Relations), 596 UNTS 261 24 April 1963
• Treaty of Amsterdam Amending the Treaty on European Union, The Treaties Establishing the European Communities and Related Acts, 10. 11. 1997, Official Journal of the European Communities C 340
• Treaty of Lisbon Amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty Establishing the European Community, 17.12.2007 EN Official Journal of the European Union C 306
• Treaty on European Union (Maastricht Treaty), 11992M/TXT, Official Journal of European Communities No C 191/1, 29/07/1992, 1-112
• UN General Assembly, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 10 December 1948, 217 A (III)
• Mahkeme Kararları
• Nationality Decrees Issued in Tunis and Morocco Advisory Opinion [1923] PCIJ Ser B No 4
• Mavrommatis Palestine Concessions, Judgment [1924] PCIJ Series A No 2
• L F H Neer and Pauline Neer (USA) v United Mexican States (1926) Vol. IV UNRIAA 60–66
• The United States of America on behalf of Henry Rothmann, claimant, v Austria and Hungary (1928) Vol. VI UNRIAA 253
• Salem Case (Egypt v USA), Award of 8 June 1932 (1932) Vol. II UNRIAA 1161
• Panevezys–Saldutiskis Railway case, Estonia v Lithuania, Judgment, PCIJ Series A/B No 76 [1939] Permanant Court of International Justice Series A/B No. 76
• Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion [1949] ICJ Reports 1949 174
• Reparation for Injuries Suffered in the Service of the United Nations, Advisory Opinion [1949] ICJ Reports 1949 174
• Nottebohm Case (second phase)(Liechtenstein v Guatemala), Judgement [1955] ICJ Reports 4
• Mergé Case [1955] Italian-US Conciliation Commission Decision No. 55, 14 UNRIAA 236
• Flegenheimer case [1958] Italian-US Conciliation Commission Decision No.182, Vol. XIV UNRIAA 327
• Interhandel (Switzerland v United States of America), Preliminary Objections, Judgment, [1959] ICJ Reports 1959 6
• Barcelona Traction, Light and Power Company, Limited, Judgment [1970] ICJ Reports 3
• Esphahanian v Bank Tejarat, Final Award (Award No 31-157-2), Case No 157
• Iran v United States Case No A/18 [1984] Iran-US CTR A/18, 5 Iran-US Claims Tribunal Reports
• Elettronica Sicula S.pA (ELSI) (United States of America v Italy), Judgment [1989] ICJ Reports 15
• Rudolf Hess Case, BVerfG Case No 2 BvR 419/80, 16 December 1980 (1992) 90 ILR 386–400
• Mario Vicente Micheletti and others v Delegación del Gobierno en Cantabria, Judgment, Case C-369/90 [1992] European Court Reports 04239
• HMHK v The Netherlands (1994) 94 International Law Reports 342–348
• Loizidou v Turkey, Judgment (Preliminary Objection) [1995] Application no 15318/89
• Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Paraguay v United States of America), Order [1998] ICJ Reports 426
• LaGrand (Germany v United States of America), Provisional Measures, Order of 3 March 1999 [1999] ICJ Reports 9
• The Right to Information on Consular Assistance in the Framework of the Guarantees of the Due Process of Law, Advisory Opinion Oc-16/99 of October 1, 1999 requested by the United Mexican States [1999] IACHR Series A no 16
• LaGrand (Germany v United States of America), Judgement [2001] ICJ Reports 466
• Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v USA) [2004] ICJ Reports 2004
• Avena and Other Mexican Nationals (Mexico v USA), Judgment [2004] ICJ Reports 12
• The Loewen Group Inc and Raymond L Loewen v United States of America (2006) 128 International Law Reports 334–424
• Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of the Congo), Preliminary Objections, Judgment [2007] ICJ Reports 582
• Ahmadou Sadio Diallo (Republic of Guinea v Democratic Republic of the Congo), Judgment [2010] ICJ Reports 639
• Cyprus v Turkey, Judgment (Just Satisfaction) of 12 May 2014 [2014] Application no 25781/94
• Georgia v Russia (I) [2019] Application no 13255/07
• Jadhav, (India v Pakistan), Judgment [2019] ICJ Reports 418
• Application of the International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism and of the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (Ukraine v Russian Federation), Preliminary Objections, Judgment [2019] ICJ Reports 2019 558
• HF and others v France, App Nos 24384/19, 44234/20 14/09/2022
• Certain Iranian Assets (Islamic Republic of Iran v United States of America), Judgment [2023] ICJ General List No 164 <https://www.icj-cij.org/sites/default/files/case-related/164/164-20230330-JUD-01-00-EN.pdf> Erişim Tarihi 15 April 2024
• Georgia v Russia (II) [2023] Application no 38263/08