Ortaöğrenim Öğrencilerinde Akran Zorbalığı İçin Dini Başa Çıkma Destekli Bir Program Önerisi

Abstract

Bu makale, ortaöğrenim öğrencileri arasında giderek yaygınlaşan akran zorbalığı sorununa karşı, dini başa çıkma stratejilerini temel alan bir müdahale programı geliştirmeyi hedeflemektedir. 2022–2023 eğitim-öğretim yılında Erzurum’da gerçekleştirilen çalışma, karma yöntem teknikleriyle yapılmıştır. Nicel aşamada, 281 lise öğrencisine “Narsisistik Kişilik Envanteri” ve “Akran Zorbalığı Ölçeği” uygulanarak, öğrencilerin narsisizm düzeyleri ile zorbalık davranışları arasındaki ilişkiler değerlendirilmiştir. Nitel boyutta ise 8 öğrenciyle gerçekleştirilen yarı yapılandırılmış görüşmelerle zorbalık deneyimlerine dair daha derinlemesine veriler elde edilmiştir. Araştırmanın temel bulgularına göre, narsisistik eğilimleri yüksek olan öğrencilerin akran zorbalığı davranışlarında daha aktif roller üstlendikleri ve hem zorba hem de kurban pozisyonlarında bulunabildikleri görülmüştür. Aynı zamanda, dindarlık düzeyinin artmasıyla birlikte zorbalık eğilimlerinin azaldığı ve dini değerlere bağlı öğrencilerin zorbalığa karşı daha dirençli oldukları tespit edilmiştir. Bu öğrenciler, zorbalıkla başa çıkarken dua etme, dini rehberlik alma, manevi destek arama gibi yöntemlere başvurmaktadır. Bu dini başa çıkma stratejileri, öğrencilerin psikolojik dayanıklılıklarını artırmakta ve stresle baş etme kapasitelerini güçlendirmektedir. Zorbalığa maruz kalan öğrencilerde düşük öz-saygı, içe kapanıklık ve sosyal destek eksikliği gözlenirken, zorba öğrencilerde güç gösterme isteği, empati eksikliği ve duygusal duyarsızlık öne çıkmaktadır. Geliştirilen dini başa çıkma temelli müdahale programı, öğrencilerin akran zorbalığıyla baş etme becerilerini artırmayı hedefleyen psiko-eğitimsel bir yaklaşımdır. Program, dua, tevekkül ve manevi destek gibi dini unsurları; empati, öfke kontrolü, öz-saygı güçlendirme ve problem çözme gibi psikolojik becerilerle bütünleştirmektedir. Grup çalışmaları, senaryo analizi ve rol yapma gibi etkinliklerle desteklenen içerik, öğrencilerin hem duygusal farkındalıklarını hem de sosyal becerilerini geliştirmeyi amaçlamaktadır. Kültürel değerlere duyarlı olan bu model, ruhsal dayanıklılığı artıran, uygulanabilir ve bütüncül bir müdahale aracı sunmaktadır. Geliştirilen dini başa çıkma destekli müdahale programı, henüz uygulamaya konmamış olsa da teorik temeller ve elde edilen bulgular, bu programın potansiyel yararlılığına güçlü bir zemin hazırlamaktadır. Bu program, yalnızca bireysel değil, okul temelli rehberlik hizmetlerinde de uygulanabilir bir model sunmakta; psikolojik sağlamlığı esas alan ve kültürel değerlere dayanan özgün bir müdahale örneği olarak din psikolojisi alanına önemli katkılar sağlamaktadır.

Keywords

• Din psikolojisi
• Akran zorbalığı
• Narsisizm
• Dindarlık
• Ortaöğrenim öğrencileri
• Dini başa çıkma

A Program Proposal Based on Religious Coping for Peer Bullying Among Secondary School Students

Abstract

This article proposes an intervention program grounded in religious coping strategies to address the growing issue of peer bullying among secondary school students. Conducted during the 2022–2023 academic year in Erzurum, the research employed a mixed-methods design. In the quantitative phase, the Narcissistic Personality Inventory and the Peer Bullying Scale were administered to 281 high school students to examine the relationship between narcissistic traits and bullying behaviors. The qualitative phase involved semi-structured interviews with eight students to gain in-depth insights into their experiences with bullying. Findings indicate that students with higher levels of narcissistic tendencies are more likely to engage in bullying behaviors and may alternate between the roles of bully and victim. Moreover, a higher level of religiosity was associated with reduced bullying tendencies; students with strong religious values demonstrated greater resilience, often employing religious coping mechanisms such as prayer, religious counseling, and seeking support from religious communities. These strategies were found to enhance psychological resilience and improve students’ capacity to manage stress. Victims commonly exhibited low selfesteem, social withdrawal, and limited social support, whereas bullies were characterized by a desire for dominance, lack of empathy, and emotional detachment. The developed religious coping-based intervention program constitutes a psychoeducational approach aimed at enhancing students' competencies in dealing with peer bullying. Integrating religious elements such as prayer, trust in God (tewakkul), and spiritual support with psychological skills including empathy, anger management, self-esteem enhancement, and problem-solving, the program offers a holistic and culturally sensitive framework. Through group activities, scenario analyses, and role-playing exercises, the content is designed to foster both emotional awareness and social competence among students. This model, grounded in cultural values, provides a viable and comprehensive intervention tool that strengthens spiritual resilience. Although the program has not yet been implemented in practice, its theoretical foundations and preliminary findings offer robust support for its potential efficacy. Beyond individual application, this intervention model is also adaptable to school-based guidance services, contributing a culturally grounded and psychologically robust example of intervention to the field of the psychology of religion.

Keywords

• Psychology of religion
• Peer bullying
• Narcissism
• Religiosity
• Secondary school students
• Religious coping

References

1. Afifi, Rima A. vd. (2020). Bullying victimization and use of substances in high school: Does religiosity moderate the association? Journal of Religion and Health, 59(1), 334-350.
2. Akhtar, S., & Ja, T. (1982). Overview: Narcissistic personality disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 139(1), 12-20.
3. Andreou, E. (2001). Bully/victim problems and their association with coping behaviour in conflictual peer ınteractions among school-age children. Educational Psychology, 21(1), 59-66.
4. Ano, G., & Vasconcelles, E. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: A meta-analysis. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 61(4), 461-80.
5. Arslan, S., Hallett, V., Akkas, E., & Akkas, O. A. (2012). Bullying and victimization among Turkish children and adolescents: Examining prevalence and associated health symptoms. European Journal of Pediat-rics, 171(10), 1549-1557.
6. Arslan, S., Savaşer, S., & Yazgan, Y. (2011). Prevalence of peer bullying in high school students in turkey and the roles of socio-cultural and demographic factors in the bullying cycle. The Indian Journal of Pedi-atrics, 78(8), 987-992.
7. Atay, S. (2009). Narsistik Kişilik Envanteri’nin Türkçeye standardizasyonu. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 11(1), 181-196.
8. Ayas, T., & Pişkin, M. (2015). Akran Zorbalığı Belirleme Ölçeği ergen formu. Akademik Bakış Uluslararası Hakemli Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 50, 316-324.

9. Aydın, B. (2011). Solution offers of guidance counselor for unfavorable behaviors of students. Education Sciences, 6, 2469-2481.
10. Ayoub, R., Brahim, T., Salem, N. B., Brigui, N., Guedria, A., & Gaddour, N. (2021). The relationship between self-esteem and bullying behavior among adolescent in Tunisia. European Psychiatry, 64(S1), 216.
11. Badger, J., Zaneva, M., Hastings, R., Broome, M., Hayes, R., Patterson, P., Rose, N., Clarkson, S., Hutchings, J., & Bowes, L. (2023). Asso-ciations between school-level disadvantage, bullying involvement and children’s mental health. Children, 10(12), 1852.
12. Baştuğ Özbek, Ö. Y., & Taneri, P. O. (2023). Çocuklarda zorbalık davranışları, kaygı ve sosyal kaygı arasındaki ilişki. Çankırı Karatekin Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14(2), 211-247.
13. Besag, V. (1995). Bullies and victims in schools. Philadelphia: Open University Press.
14. Björkqvist, Kaj vd. (1982). Bullies and victims: Their ego picture, ideal ego picture and normative ego picture. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 23(1), 307-313.
15. Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psycho-logy. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101.
16. Buhârî, Ebû Abdullah Muhammed b. İsmail, es-Sahîh, (1999). nşr. Abdülmelik Mücahid, Riyad.
17. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2017). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. (23. baskı). Ankara: Pegem Akademi.
18. Camodeca, M., & Coppola, G. (2016). Bullying, empathic concern, and internalization of rules among preschool children: The role of emotion understanding. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 40(5), 459–465.
19. Campbell, W. (1999). Narcissism and romantic attraction. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), 1254-1270.
20. Choi, Boungho - Park, Soowon. (2021). Bullying perpetration, victimization, and low self-esteem: Examining their relationship over time. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 50(4), 739-752.
21. Christiano, K. (2001). Religiosity, sociology of. International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 13115-13119.
22. Coelho, V., & Romão, A. (2018). The relation between social anxiety, social withdrawal and (cyber)bullying roles: A multilevel analysis. Computers in Human Behavior, 86, 218-226.
23. Creswell, J. W., & Creswell, J. D. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage publications.
24. Çarkıt, E., & Bacanlı, F. (2020). Okullarda akran zorbalığı: Öğretmen görüşlerine göre nitel bir çalışma. OPUS International Journal of Society Researches, 15(24), 2545-2583.
25. Çinici, M. (2024). A qualitative study on problems of young people and ways of religious coping in Türkiye. İlahiyat Tetkikleri Dergisi, 62, 1-18.
26. Çinici, M. (2025). Yapay zekâ çağında dindarlık. İstanbul: Çamlıca Yayınları.
27. Dantchev, S., Hickman, M., Heron, J., Zammit, S., & Wolke, D. (2019). The independent and cumulative effects of sibling and peer bullying in childhood on depression, anxiety, suicidal ideation, and self-harm in adulthood. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 10(651), 1-12.
28. De Pedro, K. T., Shim-Pelayo, H., & Bishop, C. (2019). Exploring physical, nonphysical, and discrimination-based victimization among transgender youth in California public schools. International Journal of Bullying Prevention, 1(3), 218-226.
29. deLara, E. (2020). Family bullying in childhood: Consequences for young adults. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(3-4), 2206-2226.
30. Delfabbro, Paul. vd. (2006). Peer and teacher bullying/victimization of South Australian secondary school students: Prevalence and psycho-social profiles. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(1), 71-90.
31. Dowling, E., & Elliott, D. (2017). Understanding children's needs when parents separate. UK: Routledge.
32. Du, T., Miller, J., & Lynam, D. (2022). The relation between narcissism and aggression: A meta-analysis. Journal of Personality, 90(4), 574-594.
33. Dumermuth, F. (1968). Religion in sociological perspective. Japanese Journal of Religious Studies, 1-29.
34. Ebû Dâvûd es-Sicistânî, Süleyman b. Eş’as b. İshâk el-Ezdî, (1999). es-Sünen, nşr. Sâlih b. Abdülaziz b. Muhammed b. İbrahim, Riyad.
35. Emmons, R. (2005). Striving for the sacred: Personal goals, life meaning, and religion. Journal of Social Issues, 61(4), 731-745.
36. Espelage, D., Rao, M., & Rue, L. (2013). Current research on school-based bullying: A social-ecological perspective. Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless, 22(1), 21-27.
37. Evans, Caroline B. R. & Smokowski, Paul R. (2016). Theoretical explanations for bullying in school: How ecological processes propagate perpetration and victimization. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 33(4), 365-375.
38. Fanti, Kostas A. & Henrich, Christopher C. (2015). Effects of self-esteem and narcissism on bullying and victimization during early adolescence. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 35(1), 5-29.
39. Farwell, L., & Wohlwend-Lloyd, R. (1998). Narcissistic processes: Optimistic expectations, favorable self-evaluations, and self-enhancing attributions. Journal of Personality, 66(1), 65-83.
40. Frodi, A., & Lamb, M. (1980). Child abusers' responses to infant smiles and cries. Child Development, 51(1), 238-241.
41. Gaffney, Hannah vd. (2019). Evaluating the effectiveness of school-bullying prevention programs: An updated meta-analytical review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 111-133.
42. Gaffney, Hannah vd. (2021). What works in anti-bullying programs? Analysis of effective intervention components. Journal of School Psychology, 85, 37-56.
43. Gage, N., Prykanowski, D., & Larson, A. (2014). School climate and bullying victimization: A latent class growth model analysis. School Psyc-hology Quarterly, 29(3), 256-271.
44. Geel, M., Toprak, F., Goemans, A., Zwaanswijk, W., & Vedder, P. (2017). Are youth psychopathic traits related to bullying? Meta-analyses on callous-unemotional traits, narcissism, and impulsivity. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 48, 768- 777.
45. Geel, M., Vedder, P., & Tanilon, J. (2014). Relationship between peer victimization, cyberbullying, and suicide in children and adolescents: A meta-analysis. JAMA Pediatrics, 168(5), 435-442.
46. Goodboy, Alan K. vd. (2016). Bullying as a display of social domi-nance orientation. Communication Research Reports, 33(2), 159-165.
47. Grapsas, S., Brummelman, E., Back, M., & Denissen, J. (2019). The “why” and “how” of narcissism: A process model of narcissistic status pursuit. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 15(1), 150-172.
48. Griffin, R., & Gross, A. (2004). Childhood bullying: Current empirical findings and future directions for research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 9(4), 379-400.
49. Gürhan, N. (2017). Her yönü ile akran zorbalığı. Türkiye Klinikleri Psikiyatri Hemşireliği Özel Dergisi, 3(2), 175-181.
50. Güven, M. (2019). Narsisizm alçakgönüllülük ve dindarlık ilişkisi. (Doktora Tezi). Erzurum: Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
51. Habimana, E., & Massé, L. (2000). Envy manifestations and personality disorders. European Psychiatry, 15(S1), 15-21.
52. Hanbel, Ebû Abdullah Ahmed b. Muhammed b. eş-Şeybani, (1998). el-Müsned, nşr. Şuayb el-Arnaut vd. Beyrut.
53. Hermann, A., & Fuller, R. (2018). Grandiose narcissism and religiosity. Handbook of Trait Narcissism: Key Advances, Research Methods, and Controversies, 379-387.
54. Herzog, J. (2004). Father hunger and narcissistic deformation. The Psychoanalytic Quarterly, 73(4), 893-914.
55. Holt, M. K., & Espelage, D. L. (2007). Perceived social support among bullies, victims, and bully-victims. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 36(8), 984-994.
56. Hong, Jun Sung vd. (2024). Subtypes of bullying and friends’ delinquency: Is religiosity a moderator? Review of Religious Research, 66(2), 101-126.
57. Horne, A., Stoddard, J., & Bell, C. (2007). Group approaches to reducing aggression and bullying in school. Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice, 11(4), 262-271.
58. Hutzell, K., & Payne, A. (2012). The impact of bullying victimiza-tion on school avoidance. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 10(4), 370-385.
59. Jackman, K., Kreuze, E. J., Caceres, B. A., & Schnall, R. (2020). Bullying and peer victimization of minority youth: Intersections of sexual identity and race/ethnicity. Journal of School Health, 90(5), 368-377.
60. Jenkins, H. (1992). Textual poachers: Television fans &participatory culture. New York: Routledge.
61. Jonason, P., Luevano, V., & Adams, H. (2012). How the dark triad traits predict relationship choices. Personality and Individual Differences, 53(3), 180-184.
62. Juvonen, J., Graham, S., & Schuster, M. (2003). Bullying among yo-ung adolescents: the strong, the weak, and the troubled. Pediatrics, 112(6), 1231-1237.
63. Kanca, H. K. (2019). Kurum bakımı altındaki çocuklara yönelik din hizmetleri: Uygulamalar, yöntem ve öneriler. Diyanet İlmi Dergi, 55(1), 121-153.
64. Kartopu, S., & Hacıkeleşoğlu, H. (2016). Dindarlık eğiliminin kimlik duygusu kazanımındaki rolü. The Journal of Academic Social Sciences, 29, 244-268.
65. Kepenekçi, Y. K., & Çınkır, Ş. (2003). Öğrenciler arası zorbalık. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 34, 236-253.
66. Kızılgeçit, M. (2015). Yalnızlık umutsuzluk ve dindarlık üzerine psiko-sosyal bir çalışma. İstanbul: Gece Kitaplığı.
67. Kowalski, R. M., Giumetti, G. W., Schroeder, A. N., & Lattanner, M. R. (2014). Bullying in the digital age: A critical review and meta-analysis of cyberbullying research among youth. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 1073-1137.
68. Krizan, Z., & Bushman, B. J. (2011). Better than my loved ones: Social comparison tendencies among narcissists. Personality and Individual Differences, 50(2), 212-216.
69. Kutlu, F., & Aydın, G. (2010). Akran Zorbalığı Ölçek geliştirme ön çalışması: Kendini bildirim formu. Türk Psikoloji Yazıları, 13(25), 1-12.
70. Küfner, A. C., Nestler, S., & Back, M. D. (2013). The two pathways to being an (un-)popular narcissist. Journal of Personality, 81(2), 184–195.
71. Låftman, S. B., Östberg, V., & Modin, B. (2017). School climate and exposure to bullying: A multilevel study. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 28(1), 153–164.
72. Lambe, L. J., Della Cioppa, V., Hong, I. K., & Craig, W. M. (2019). Standing up to bullying: A social ecological review of peer defending in offline and online contexts. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 45, 51-74.
73. Lereya, S. T., Copeland, W. E., Zammit, S., & Wolke, D. (2015). Bully/victims: A longitudinal, population-based cohort study of their mental health. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 24(12), 1461-1471.
74. Liu, Y., Li, S., He, Y., Wang, D., & Yang, B. (2021). Eliminating threat or venting rage? The relationship between narcissism and aggression in violent offenders. Acta Psychologica Sinica. 53(3), 244.
75. Lonigro, A., Schneider, B., Laghi, F., Baiocco, R., Pallini, S., & Brunner, T. (2015). Is cyberbullying related to trait or state anger?. Child Psychiatry & Human Development, 46, 445-454.
76. Ma, X. (2002). Bullying in middle school: Individual and school cha-racteristics of victims and offenders. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 13(1), 63-89.
77. Mark, L., Värnik, A., & Sisask, M. (2019). Who suffers most from being involved in bullying-bully, victim, or bully‐victim?. Journal of School Health, 89(2), 136-144.
78. Maspiroh, I. & Haryanto, H. (2023). Strengthening religious character to prevent bullying behavior students in elementary schools. Proceedings Series on Social Sciences & Humanities, 12, 510-514.
79. Massarwi, A. A. & Gross-Manos, D. (2022). The association between bullying victimization and subjective well-being among children: Does the role of child religiosity matter? International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(15), 9644.
80. Massarwi, A. A. vd. (2019). The correlation between delinquent peers and perpetration of serious physical violence: Religiosity as a protective factor. Child Indicators Research, 12(6), 2051-2065.
81. Mccann, J., & Biaggio, M. (1989). Narcissistic personality features and self-reported anger. Psychological Reports, 64(1), 55-58.
82. Menin, Damiano vd. (2021). Was that (cyber)bullying? Investigating the operational definitions of bullying and cyberbullying from adolescents’ perspective. International Journal of Clinical and Health Psychology, 21(2), 100221.
83. Moon, B., & Alarid, L. (2015). School bullying, low self-control, and opportunity. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(5), 839-856.
84. Mooney, H. (1965). Pathologic jealousy and psychochemotherapy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 111(480), 1023-1042.
85. Noorden, T., Haselager, G., Cillessen, A., & Bukowski, W. (2015). Empathy and involvement in bullying in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 44, 637-657.
86. O’Brennan, L., Bradshaw, C., & Sawyer, A. (2009). Examining developmental differences in the social‐emotional problems among frequ-ent bullies, victims, and bully/victims. Psychology in the Schools, 46(2), 100-115.
87. Okumuş, E. (2020). Genç yetişkinlerde narsisizm ve dindarlık ilişkisi: Kayseri, Kocasinan ilçesi örneği (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
88. Olthof, T., Goossens, F., Vermande, M., Aleva, E., & van der Meulen, M. (2011). Bullying as strategic behavior: Relations with desired and acquired dominance in the peer group. Journal of School Psychology, 49(3), 339-359.
89. Olweus, D. (1994). Bullying at school: Basic facts and effects of a school-based intervention program. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35(7), 1171–1190.
90. Orhan, G. (2014). Narsisizm etiyolojisi ve dindarlıkla ilişkisi (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Erciyes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü.
91. Özdoğan, Ö. (2009). Aşkın yanımız maneviyat. Ankara: Özdenöze Yayınları.
92. Pan, B. vd. (2020). Classroom status hierarchy moderates the association between social dominance goals and bullying behavior in middle childhood and early adolescence. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 49(11), 2285-2297.
93. Pargament, K. I. (1997). The psychology of religion and coping: Theory, research, and practice. New York: Guilford Press.
94. Pargament, K. I., Smith, B. W., Koenig, H. G., & Perez, L. (1998). Patterns of positive and negative religious coping with major life stressors. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 37, 710-724.
95. Park, S. W., & Colvin, C. R. (2015). Narcissism and other-derogation in the absence of ego threat. Journal of Personality, 83(3), 334-345.
96. Permatasari, N. M. & Wu, M. (2021). The relationship between the narcissistic tendencies and cyberbullying behavior among university students. Insight: Jurnal Ilmiah Psikologi, 23(1), 126-134.
97. Philipson, I. (1985). Gender and narcissism. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 9(2), 213-228.
98. Pinquart, M. (2016). Systematic review: Bullying involvement of children with and without chronic physical illness and/or physical/sensory disability- a meta-analytic comparison with healthy/nondisabled peers. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 42(3), 245-259.
99. Polanin, M., & Vera, E. (2013). Bullying prevention and social justice. Theory Into Practice, 52(4), 303-310.
100. Raskin, R. N., & Hall, C. S. (1979). A narcissistic personality inventory. Psychological Reports, 45(2), 590-590.
101. Raskin, R., Novacek, J., & Hogan, R. (1991). Narcissistic self-esteem management. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6), 911-918.
102. Reijntjes, A. vd. (2016). Narcissism, bullying, and social dominance in youth: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44(1), 63-74.
103. Rhodewalt, F., & Morf, C. (1998). On self-aggrandizement and anger: A temporal analysis of narcissism and affective reactions to success and failure. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(3), 672-685.
104. Rigby, K. (2005). Why do some children bully at school?: The contributions of negative attitudes towards victims and the perceived expectations of friends, parents and teachers. School Psychology International, 26(2), 147-161.
105. Rodkin, P. C., Espelage, D. L., & Hanish, L. D. (2015). A relational framework for understanding bullying: Developmental antecedents and outcomes. The American Psychologist, 70(4), 311-321.
106. Romera, E., Ortega-Ruiz, R., Rodríguez-Barbero, S., & Falla, D. (2019). How do you think the victims of bullying feel? A study of mo-ral emotions in primary school. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, (1753) 1-11.
107. Ronningstam, E., & Gunderson, J. (1990). Identifying criteria for narcissistic personality disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 147(7), 918-22.
108. Rowatt, W., & Kirkpatrick, L. A. (2002). Two dimensions of attachment to god and their relation to affect, religiosity, and personality constructs. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 41(4), 637-651.
109. Salmivalli, C., Kaukiainen, A., Kaistaniemi, L., & Lagerspetz, K. M. J. (1999). Self-evaluated self-esteem, peer-evaluated self-esteem, and defensive egotism as predictors of adolescents’ participation in bullying situations. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 25(10), 1268-1278.
110. Sedikides, C., & Gebauer, J. E. (2010). Religiosity as self-enhancement: A meta-analysis of the relation between socially desirable responding and religiosity. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 17-36.
111. Sır, E. & Lok, N. (2024). The effect of self-esteem development programme applied to secondary school students on self-esteem and peer bullying victimization: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 77, e305-e312.
112. Smith, P. K. (2016). Bullying: Definition, types, causes, consequences and intervention. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 10(9), 519-532.
113. Stone, J. (2001). A theory of religion revised. Religious Studies, 37(2), 177-189.
114. Şahin, N., & Kirli, U. (2021). The relationship between peer bullying and anxiety-depression levels in children with obesity. Alpha Psychiatry, 22(2), 94-99.
115. Şirin, T. (2014). Dini danışma ve rehberlik: İhsan modeli manevi danışmanlık. Mim Akademi Yayınları.
116. Tirmizî, Ebu İsa Muhammed b. İsa (1998). Sünen. thk. Beşşar Avvad Ma’ruf, nşr, Daru’l Garbi’l-İslâmi.
117. Tsaousis, I. (2016). The relationship of self-esteem to bullying perpetration and peer victimization among schoolchildren and adoles-cents: A meta-analytic review. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 31, 186-199.
118. UNESCO. (2024). New SDG 4 data on bullying. http://uis.unesco.org.
119. Unnever, J., & Cornell, D. (2003). The culture of bullying in middle school. Journal of School Violence, 2(2), 27-45.
120. Van Geel, M. vd. (2018). Does peer victimization predict low self-esteem, or does low self-esteem predict peer victimization? Meta-analyses on longitudinal studies. Developmental Review, 49, 31-40.
121. VanderWeele, T. J. (2017). Religious communities and human flou-rishing. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 26(5), 476-481.
122. Villani, D., Sorgente, A., Iannello, P., & Antonietti, A. (2019). The role of spirituality and religiosity in subjective well-being of individuals with different religious status. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1525.
123. Washburn, J. J., McMahon, S. D., King, C. A., Reinecke, M. A., & Silver, C. (2004). Narcissistic features in young adolescents: Relations to aggression and internalizing symptoms. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 33(3), 247-260.
124. Witte, T. H., Callahan, K. L., & Perez-Lopez, M. (2002). Narcissism and anger: An exploration of underlying correlates. Psychological Reports, 90(3), 871-875.
125. Wolke, D., & Lereya, S. T. (2015). Long-term effects of bullying. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 100(9), 879-885.
126. Wu, W., Luu, S., & Luh, D. (2016). Defending behaviors, bullying roles, and their associations with mental health in junior high school students: A population-based study. BMC Public Health, 16, 1-10.
127. Yeager, D. S. vd. (2015). Declines in efficacy of anti-bullying programs among older adolescents: theory and a three-level meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 37, 36-51.