Muslim and Christian Peer Images in Turkish-German Muslim Children's Human Figure Drawings

Year 2021, , 133 - 172, 17.04.2021

Yasemin Güleç

https://doi.org/10.17569/tojqi.754028

Cited By: 1

Abstract

In this study, the religious social perceptions and friendship relations of Turkish-German Muslim children between the ages of 7-14 about their religious groups and their host Christian peers were examined. 42 students, including 17 girls and 25 boys, participated in the study. Here children's drawings were benefited as a primary source of information and a diagnostic method in which secondary information (open-ended questions) were directed. The data were analyzed by descriptive qualitative analysis method based on the research questions. In this study, it was seen that religious indicators, signs, and symbols (religious-social images) emerged effectively through the drawing method. Theological semiotic may be used as a diagnostics method in more studies in determining the development of religious concepts in children. The number of religious differences in the drawings increased with age. It was understood that 9-14-year-old children could make religious categorization in interviews about drawings and responses concerning open-ended questions. In-group favoritism and in-group friendship preferences increased with age. At the same time, as age increased, moral reasoning in choosing friendship increased.

Keywords

Theological Semiotic, Religious social images, Religious social categorization, Religious prejudice, Interreligious friendships

Türk-Alman Müslüman Çocukların İnsan Figürü Çizimlerinde Müslüman ve Hristiyan Akran Görüntüleri

Abstract

Bu çalışmada 7-14 yaşları arasındaki Türk-Alman Müslüman çocukların kendi dini grupları ve ev sahibi Hristiyan akranları hakkındaki dini sosyal algıları ve arkadaşlık ilişkileri incelenmiştir. Çalışmaya 17 kız 25 erkek olmak üzere 42 öğrenci katıldı. Çalışmada çocuk çizimleri birincil bilgi kaynağı ve ikincil bilgilerin (açık uçlu sorular) yönlendirildiği bir tanı yöntemi olarak kullanılmıştır. Veriler araştırma sorularına dayalı nitel analiz yöntemi ile analiz edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada, dini göstergelerin, işaretlerin ve sembollerin (dini-sosyal imgeler) çizim yöntemi ile etkili bir şekilde ortaya çıktığı görülmüştür. Teolojik göstergebilim çocuklarda dini kavramların gelişimini belirlemek için daha fazla çalışmada tanı yöntemi olarak kullanılabilir. Çizimlerdeki dini farklılıkların sayısı yaşla birlikte artmıştır. 9-14 yaş arası çocukların resimlerle ilgili görüşmelerde ve açık uçlu sorulara verdikleri cevaplarda dini sınıflandırma yapabildikleri anlaşılmıştır. Grup içi taraftarlık ve grup içi arkadaşlık tercihleri yaşla birlikte artmıştır. Aynı zamanda, yaş arttıkça, arkadaşlık seçimindeki ahlaki akıl yürütme de artmıştır.

Keywords

Teolojik göstergebilim, dini sosyal imgeler, dini toplumsal sınıflandırma, dini önyargı, dinler arası arkadaşlıklar

References

• Aboud, F. (1988). Children and prejudice. New York: Basil Blackwell.
• Aboud, F., & Amato, M. (2001). Developmental and socialization influences on intergroup bias. In R Brown & S. Gaertner (Eds.), Blackwell handbook in social psychology: Intergroup processes (pp. 65–85). https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470693421
• Abrams, D., Rutland, A., Ferrell, J. M., & Pelletier, J. (2008). Children’s judgments of disloyal and immoral peer behavior: Subjective group dynamics in minimal intergroup contexts. Child Development, 79(2), 444–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01135.x
• Abu-Nimer, M., & Smith, R. K. (2016). Interreligious and intercultural education for dialogue, peace and social cohesion. International Review of Education, 62(4), 393–405. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11159-016-9583-4
• Altemeyer, B. (2003). RESEARCH: Why Do Religious Fundamentalists Tend to be Prejudiced? International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 13(1), 17–28. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327582IJPR1301_03
• Altemeyer, B., & Hunsberger, B. (1992). Authoritarianism, religious fundamentalism, quest, and prejudice. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 2(2), 113–133. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0202_5
• Bar-Tal, D. (1996). Development of social categories and stereotypes in early childhood: The case of “The Arab” concept formation, stereotype and attitudes by Jewish children in Israel. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 20(3–4), 341–370. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(96)00023-5
• Ben-Asher, S. (2016). Bedouin children and their reality perceptions of the war between Israel and Gaza. Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs, 36(4), 484–501. https://doi.org/10.1080/13602004.2016.1248177
• Bennett, M., Barrett, M., Karakozov, R., Kipiani, G., Lyons, E., Pavlenko, V., & Riazanova, T. (2004). Young children’s evaluations of the ıngroup and of outgroups: A multi-national study. Social Development, 13(1), 124–141. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1467-9507.2004.00260.x
• Bombi, A. S., Cannoni, E., & Pinto, G. (2007). Pictorial assessment of interpersonal relationships: An analytic system for understanding childrens drawings = PAIR. Firenze: Firenze University Press.
• Bombi, A. S., & Pinto, G. (1994). Making a dyad: Cohesion and distancing in children’s pictorial representation of friendship. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 12(4), 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-835X.1994.tb00656.x
• Bonoti, F., Leondari, A., & Mastora, A. (2013). Exploring Children’s Understanding of Death: Through Drawings and the Death Concept Questionnaire. Death Studies, 37(1), 47–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2011.623216
• Branscombe, N. R., Schmitt, M. T., & Harvey, R. D. (1999). Perceiving pervasive discrimination among African Americans: Implications for group identification and well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(1), 135–149. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.1.135
• Brewer, M. B. (1999). The psychology of prejudice: Ingroup love and outgroup hate? Journal of Social Issues, 55(3), 429–444. https://doi.org/10.1111/0022-4537.00126
• Brooks, M. (2003b). Drawing Thinking, Meaning. Retrieved January 14, 2020, from TRACEY [an electronic journal about contemporary drawing issues]. Loughborough: University of Loughborough website: http://www.lboro.ac.uk/ departments/ac/tracey/thin/brooks.html
• Brooks, M. (2003a). Drawing to Learn, Young Children: Beyond the journal, September. Retrieved January 14, 2020, from Washington: National Association for the Education of Young Children website: http://www.journal.naeyc.org/btj/200309
• Brown, Rupert, & Zagefka, H. (2011). The dynamics of acculturation: An intergroup perspective. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 44, 129–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00003-2
• Brüß, J. (2005). Proud but isolated? Effects of in-group favouritism and acculturation preferences on inter-ethnic attitudes and contact between German, Turkish and resettler adolescents. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 31(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183042000305663
• Bussi, M. G. B., & Boni, M. (n.d.). Instruments for Semiotic Mediation in Primary School Classrooms [1]. 8.
• Cadge, W., & Ecklund, E. H. (2007). Immigration and religion. Annual Review of Sociology, (33), 359–379. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.33.040406.131707
• Cameron, J. A., Alvarez, J. M., Ruble, D. N., & Fuligni, A. J. (2001). Children’s lay theories about ingroups and outgroups: Reconceptualizing research on prejudice. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5(2), 118–128. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327957PSPR0502_3
• Çelik, Ç. (2015). ‘Having a German passport will not make me German’: Reactive ethnicity and oppositional identity among disadvantaged male Turkish second-generation youth in Germany. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(9), 1646–1662. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2015.1018298
• Cheadle, J. E., & Schwadel, P. (2012). The ‘friendship dynamics of religion,’ or the ‘religious dynamics of friendship’? A social network analysis of adolescents who attend small schools. Social Science Research, 41(5), 1198–1212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.03.014
• Connor, P. (2010). Contexts of immigrant receptivity and immigrant religious outcomes: The case of Muslims in Western Europe. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(3), 376–403. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870902935963
• de Hoon, S., & van Tubergen, F. (2014). The religiosity of children of immigrants and natives in England, Germany, and the Netherlands: The role of parents and peers in class. European Sociological Review, 30(2), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcu038
• Dennis, W. (1966). Group values through children’s drawings. New York: John Wiley.
• Dovidio, J. F., Gaertner, S. L., & Saguy, T. (2007). Another view of “we”: Majority and minority group perspectives on a common ingroup identity. European Review of Social Psychology, 18(1), 296–330. https://doi.org/10.1080/10463280701726132
• Driessnack, M. (2005). Children’s drawings as facilitators of communication: A meta-analysis. Journal of Pediatric Nursing, 20(6), 415–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedn.2005.03.011
• Enesco, I., Navarro, A., Paradela, I., & Guerrero, S. (2005). Stereotypes and beliefs about different ethnic groups in Spain. A study with Spanish and Latin American children living in Madrid. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 638–659. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.08.009
• Ersoy, A. F. (2016). Dördüncü sınıf öğrencilerinin hoşgörü algısı ve deneyimleri: Bir fenomenolojik araştırma. Mersin Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 12(1), 454–473. https://doi.org/10.17860/efd.31740
• Frith, C., & Law, J. (1995). Cognitive and physiological processes underlying drawing skills. Leonardo, 28(3), 203. https://doi.org/10.2307/1576075
• Furth, G. M. (1989). Secret world of drawings: Healing through art. Toronto, Canada: Sigo Pr.
• Golomb. (1992). Golomb, C. (1992). The child’s creation of pictorial world. Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Goodenough, F. L. (1926). Measurement of intelligence by drawings. Chicago: World Book Company.
• Goodenough, F. L. (1928). Studies in the psychology of children’s drawings. Psychological Bulletin, 25(5), 272–283. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0071049
• Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(6), 1464–1480. https://doi.org/10.1037//0022-3514.74.6.1464
• Griffiths, J. A., & Nesdale, D. (2006). In-group and out-group attitudes of ethnic majority and minority children. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30(6), 735–749. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.05.001
• Grossetti, M. (2005). Where do social relations come from? Social Networks, 27(4), 289–300. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2004.11.004
• Güleç, Y. (2019). Perception of Christianity and Christian peers in the drawings of Muslim children: The example of Pforzheim/Germany. Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 10(2), 215–242. https://doi.org/10.17569/tojqi.403145
• Güngör, D., Bornstein, M. H., & Phalet, K. (2012). Religiosity, values, and acculturation: A study of Turkish, Turkish-Belgian, and Belgian adolescents. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 36(5), 367–373. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025412448357
• Günther‐Heimbrock, H. (1999). Images and Pictures of God: The Development of Creative Seeing [1]. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 4(1), 51–60. https://doi.org/10.1080/1364436990040105
• Halise Kader, Z. (2010). Almanya’daki Müslüman Çocuklarda Allah Kavramının Gelişimi: Âdem ve Havva Kıssası - Yaratılışı, Cennetten Çıkarılışları - Bağlamında 1-4., 6. Sınıf Çocukları Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Ankara Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 51(1), 213–248. https://doi.org/10.1501/Ilhfak_0000001022
• Hallinan, M. T., & Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Opportunities and constraints: Black-white differences in the formation of ınterracial friendships. Child Development, 58(5), 1358–1371. https://doi.org/10.2307/1130627
• Halstead, J. M., & McLaughlin, T. (2005). Are faith schools divisive? In J. Cairns, R. Gardner, & D. Lawton (Eds.), Faith schools: Consensus or conflict? (pp. 61–73). New York: Routledge.
• Harms, E. (1944). The development of religious experience in children. American Journal of Sociology, 50(2), 112–122. https://doi.org/10.1086/219518
• Hart, R. A. (1992). Children’s participation: From tokenism to citizenship. Florence: UNICEF.
• Heath, A. F., Rothon, C., & Kilpi, E. (2008). The second generation in Western Europe: Education, unemployment, and occupational attainment. Annual Review of Sociology, 34(1), 211–235. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.soc.34.040507.134728
• Herriot, P. (2007). Religious fundamentalism and social identity. New York: Routledge.
• Hirschman, C. (2006). The role of religion in the origins and adaptation of ımmigrant groups in the United States. International Migration Review, 38(3), 1206–1233. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00233.x
• Hitti, A., Mulvey, K. L., & Killen, M. (2017). Minority and majority children’s evaluations of social exclusion in ıntergroup contexts. In N. J. Cabrera & B. Leyendecker (Eds.), Handbook on positive development of minority children and youth (pp. 281–293). Cham: Springer International Publishing.
• Jackson, L. M., & Hunsberger, B. (1999). An intergroup perspective on religion and prejudice. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 38(4), 509. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387609
• Jacob, K., & Kalter, F. (2013). Intergenerational change in religious salience among immigrant families in four European countries. International Migration, 51(3), 38–56. https://doi.org/10.1111/imig.12108
• Killen, M., Lee-Kim, J., McGlothlin, H., & Stangor, C. (2002). How children and adolescents evaluate gender and racial exclusion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 67(4), vii–vii. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-5834.00218
• Killen, M., & Stangor, C. (2001). Children’s social reasoning about inclusion and exclusion in gender and race peer group contexts. Child Development, 72(1), 174–186. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00272
• Kinder, D. R., & Sears, D. O. (1981). Prejudice and politics: Symbolic racism versus racial threats to the good life. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 40(3), 414– 31.
• Kirova, A., & Emme, M. (2007). Critical Issues in Conducting Research With Immigrant Children. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 1(2), 83–107. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595690701293710
• Koç, B. (2009). Çocuklarda cennet ve cehennem tasavvuru (İlkögretim okulu ögrencileri örneklemi). Ekev Akademi Dergisi, 13(39), 155–178.
• Koppitz, E. M. (1968). Psychological evaluation of children’s human figure drawings. New York: Grune & Stratton. Kowalski, K. (2003). The emergence of ethnic and racial attitudes in preschool-aged children. The Journal of Social Psychology, 143(6), 677–690. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224540309600424
• Krampen, M. (1991). Children’s Drawings: Iconic Coding of the Environment. New York: Springer. Ladd, K. L., McIntosh, D. N., & Spilka, B. (1998). Children’s God Concepts: Influences of Denomination, Age, and Gender. International Journal for the Psychology of Religion, 8(1), 49–56. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327582ijpr0801_6
• Laghi, F., Baiocco, R., Cannoni, E., Di Norcia, A., Baumgartner, E., & Bombi, A. S. (2013). Friendship in children with internalizing and externalizing problems: A preliminary investigation with the Pictorial Assessment of Interpersonal Relationships. Children and Youth Services Review, 35(7), 1095–1100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2013.05.007
• Laghi, F., Baiocco, R., Di Norcia, A., Cannoni, E., Baumgartner, E., & Bombi, A. S. (2014). Emotion understanding, pictorial representations of friendship and reciprocity in school-aged children. Cognition and Emotion, 28(7), 1338–1346. https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2014.881779
• Leman, P. J., Ben-Hmeda, M., Cox, J., Loucas, C., Seltzer-Eade, S., & Hine, B. (2013). Normativity and friendship choices among ethnic majority- and minority-group children. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 37(3), 202–210. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025413477315
• Leon, K., Wallace, T., & Rudy, D. (2007). Representations of parent? Child alliances in children’s family drawings. Social Development, 16(3), 440–459. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9507.2007.00392.x
• Leszczensky, L., Flache, A., & Sauter, L. (2019). Does the share of religious ingroup members affect how important religion is to adolescents? Applying optimal distinctiveness theory to four European countries. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2019.1620419
• Leszczensky, L., & Pink, S. (2016). Intra- and inter-group friendship choices of Christian, Muslim, and Non-religious youth in Germany. European Sociological Review, 72–83. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/jcw049
• Lopez, A. B., Huynh, V. W., & Fuligni, A. J. (2011). A longitudinal study of religious identity and participation during adolescence. Child Development, 82(4), 1297–1309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2011.01609.x
• Machover, K. (1949). Personality projection in the drawing of the human figure: A method of personality investigation. Springfield: Charles C. Thomas Publisher.
• Malchiodi, C. A. (1998). Understanding children’s drawings. New York: Guilford Press.
• Maliepaard, M., Lubbers, M., & Gijsberts, M. (2010). Generational differences in ethnic and religious attachment and their interrelation. A study among Muslim minorities in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(3), 451–472. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870903318169
• McGlothlin, H., & Killen, M. (2005). Children’s perceptions of intergroup and intragroup similarity and the role of social experience. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 26(6), 680–698. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2005.08.008
• McGlothlin, H., & Killen, M. (2006). Intergroup Attitudes of European American Children Attending Ethnically Homogeneous Schools. Child Development, 77(5), 1375–1386. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00941.x
• McLernon, F., & Cairns, E. (2001). Impact of political violence on images of war and peace in the drawings of primary school children. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 7(1), 45–57. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327949PAC0701_04
• Michael, O., & Rajuan, M. (2009). Perceptions of ‘the other’ in children’s drawings: An intercultural project among Bedouin and Jewish children. Journal of Peace Education, 6(1), 69–86. https://doi.org/10.1080/17400200802658407
• Morrow, V., & Richards, M. (1996). The Ethics of Social Research with Children: An Overview1. Children & Society, 10(2), 90–105. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1099-0860.1996.tb00461.x
• Nagy, M. (1948). The Child’s Theories concerning Death. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 73(1), 3–27. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856559.1948.10533458
• Nesdale, D. (2008). Peer group rejection and children’s intergroup prejudice. In S. R. Levy & M. Killen (Eds.), Intergroup attitudes and relations in childhood through adulthood (pp. 32–46). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press. Nesdale, D., Maass, A., Griffiths, J., & Durkin, K. (2003). Effects of in-group and out-group ethnicity on children’s attitudes towards members of the in-group and out-group. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21(2), 177–192. https://doi.org/10.1348/026151003765264039
• Omer, S., O’Connor, N., Sweeney, G., & McCarthy, G. (2012). Psychiatrists in their eyes: Children’s drawings of what a psychiatrist looks like. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 29(1), 33–35. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0790966700017584
• Patton, M. Q. (1987). How to Use Qualitative Methods in Evaluation. United States: SAGE Publications, Inc.
• Phalet, K., Güngör, D., & Brewster Smith, M. (2009). Cultural continuity and discontinuity in Turkish migrant families: Extending the model of family change. In S. Bekman & A. Aksu-Koc (Eds.), Perspectives on human development, family, and culture (pp. 241–262). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
• Phinney, J. S., & Cobb, N. J. (1996). Reasoning about Intergroup Relations among Hispanic and Euro-American Adolescents. Journal of Adolescent Research, 11(3), 306–324. https://doi.org/10.1177/0743554896113003
• Phinney, J. S., Ferguson, D. L., & Tate, J. D. (1997). Intergroup attitudes among ethnic minority adolescents: A causal model. Child Development, 68(5), 955–969. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132044
• Pinto, G., & Bombi, A. S. (2008). Children’s drawing of friendship and family relationships in different cultures. In M. Constance & M. T. Hanns (Eds.), Children’s understanding and production of pictures, drawings, and art theoretical and empirical approaches (pp. 121–154). Ashland, OH, US: Hogrefe & Huber Publishers.
• Pitts, V. P. (1976). Drawing the invisible: Children’s conceptualization of God. Character Potential: A Record of Research, 8(1), 12–24.
• Pitts, V. P. (1977). Drawing pictures of God. Learning for Living, 16(3), 123–129. https://doi.org/10.1080/00239707708556951
• Pnevmatikos, D. (2002). Conceptual changes in religious concepts of elementary school children: The case of the house where God lives. Educational Psychology, 22(1), 93–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410120101279
• Quintana, S. M. (1998). Children’s developmental understanding of ethnicity and race. Applied and Preventive Psychology, 7(1), 27–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-1849(98)80020-6
• Rabaglietti, E., Vacirca, M. F., Zucchetti, G., & Ciairano, S. (2012). Similarity, cohesion, and friendship networks among boys and girls: A one-year follow-up study among Italian children. Current Psychology, 31(3), 246–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-012-9145-2
• Rothgerber, H., & Worchel, S. (1997). The view from below: Intergroup relations from the perspective of the disadvantaged group. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(6), 1191–1205. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.73.6.1191
• Ruble, D. N., Alvarez, J., Bachman, M., Cameron, J., Fuligni, A., Coll, C. G., & Rhee, E. (2004). The development of a sense of we: The emergence and implications of children’s collective identity. In M. Bennett & F. Sani (Eds.), The development of the social self. New York: Psychology Press.
• Rutland, A., Cameron, L., Milne, A. B., & McGeorge, P. (2005). Social Norms and self-presentation: Children’s implicit and explicit intergroup attitudes. Child Development, 76(2), 451–466. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00856.x
• Rutland, A., Killen, M., & Abrams, D. (2010). A New Social-Cognitive Developmental Perspective on Prejudice: The Interplay Between Morality and Group Identity. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 5(3), 279–291. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691610369468
• Sagara-Rosemeyer, M., & Davies, B. (2007). The Integration of Religious Traditions in Japanese Children’s View of Death and Afterlife. Death Studies, 31(3), 223–247. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481180601100525
• Sani, F., & Bennett, M. (2004). Developmental aspects of social identity. In M. Bennett & F. Sani (Eds.), The Development of the Social Self (pp. 77–99). New York: Psychology Press.
• Saroglou, V., Delpierre, V., & Dernelle, R. (2004). Values and religiosity: A meta-analysis of studies using Schwartz’s model. Personality and Individual Differences, 37(4), 721–734. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2003.10.005
• Savelkoul, M., Scheepers, P., Van der Veld, W., & Hagendoorn, L. (2012). Comparing levels of anti-Muslim attitudes across Western countries. Quality & Quantity, 46(5), 1617–1624. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-011-9470-9
• Schilder, P., & Wechsler, D. (1934). The attitudes of children toward death. The Pedagogical Seminary and Journal of Genetic Psychology, 45(2), 406–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856559.1934.10533137
• Schwartz, S. H., & Huismans, S. (1995). Value priorities and religiosity in four western religions. Social Psychology Quarterly, 58(2), 88. https://doi.org/10.2307/2787148
• Seul, J. R. (1999). `Ours is the way of God’: Religion, identity, and intergroup conflict. Journal of Peace Research, 36(5), 553–569. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343399036005004
• Shih, T. A. (1998). Finding the niche: Friendship formation of immigrant adolescents. Youth & Society, 30(2), 209–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/0044118X98030002004
• Smetana, J. G. (2013). Moral development: The social domain theory view. In P. D. Zelazo (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology (Vol 1): Body and mind (pp. 832–863). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press.
• Smith, S., Maas, I., & van Tubergen, F. (2014). Ethnic ingroup friendships in schools: Testing the by-product hypothesis in England, Germany, the Netherlands and Sweden. Social Networks, 39, 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2014.04.003
• Soehl, T. (2017). Social reproduction of religiosity in the ımmigrant context: The role of family transmission and family formation—Evidence from France. International Migration Review, 51(4), 999–1030. https://doi.org/10.1111/imre.12289
• Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categories: Studies in social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
• Tajfel, H., & Dawson, J. L. M. (1965). Disappointed guests: Essays by African, Asian, and west Indian students. London: Oxford University Press.
• Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (2004). The social identity theory of intergroup behavior. In J. T. Jost & J. Sidanius (Eds.), Political psychology (pp. 276–293). New York: Psychology Press.
• Takriti, R. A., Barrett, M., & Buchanan-Barrow, E. (2006). Children’s understanding of religion: Interviews with Arab-Muslim, Asian-Muslim, Christian and Hindu children aged 5–11 years. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 9(1), 29–42. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670512331335677
• Tamm, M. E. (1996). The Meaning of God for Children and Adolescents ‐ a Phenomenographic Study of Drawings. British Journal of Religious Education, 19(1), 33–44. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141620960190106
• Tamm, M. E., & Granqvist, A. (1995). The meaning of death for children and adolescents: A phenomenographic study of drawings. Death Studies, 19(3), 203–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481189508252726
• Teichman, Y. (2001). The development of Israeli children’s images of Jews and Arabs and their expression in human figure drawings. Developmental Psychology, 37(6), 749–761. https://doi.org/10.1037//0012-1649.37.6.749
• Teichman, Y., & Zafrir, H. (2003). Images held by Jewish and Arab children in Israel of people representing their own and the other group. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 34(6), 658–676. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022103256847
• Tümlü, C. (2013). 5-12 yaş aralığındaki çocukların ölüm algısını ifade biçimlerinin incelenmesi (Doktora tezi). İnönü Üniversitesi, Malatya. Turiel, E. (1983). The Development of Social Knowledge: Morality and Convention. Cambridge University Press.
• Ulcay, H. S. (2011). İlköğretim çağı çocuk resimlerinde cennet ve cehennem tasavvuru (Yüksek Lisans Tezi). Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sakarya.
• Uysal, G., Sönmez, D. D., Bozkurt, G., & Çöplü, Y. (2018). Hastanede yatan çocukların hemşire algısının resim çizme yöntemi ile incelenmesi: Projektif araştırma. Mersin Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Dergisi, 11(1), 62–74. https://doi.org/10.26559/mersinsbd.339045
• Van der Straten Waillet, N., & Roskam, I. (2012a). Developmental and social determinants of religious social categorization. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 173(2), 208–220. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.2011.600356
• Van der Straten Waillet, N., & Roskam, I. (2012b). Religious discrimination in childhood and adolescence. Archive for the Psychology of Religion, 34(2), 215–242. https://doi.org/10.1163/15736121-12341240
• Van der Straten Waillet, N., & Roskam, I. (2013). Are eeligious tolerance and pluralism reachable ideals? A psychological perspective. Religious Education, 108(1), 69–87. https://doi.org/10.1080/00344087.2013.747873
• Velasco González, K., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., & Poppe, E. (2008). Prejudice towards Muslims in the Netherlands: Testing integrated threat theory. British Journal of Social Psychology, 47(4), 667–685. https://doi.org/10.1348/014466608X284443
• Verkuyten, M. (2007a). Religious group identification and inter-religious relations: A study among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 10(3), 341–357. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430207078695
• Verkuyten, M., & Kinket, B. (2000). Social distances in a multi ethnic society: The ethnic hierarchy among Dutch preadolescents. Social Psychology Quarterly, 63(1), 75. https://doi.org/10.2307/2695882
• Verkuyten, M., & Slooter, L. (2008). Muslim and Non-Muslim Adolescents’ Reasoning about Freedom of Speech and Minority Rights. Child Development, 79(3), 514–528. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/27563500
• Verkuyten, M., & Thijs, J. (2010). Religious group relations among Christian, Muslim and Nonreligious early adolescents in the Netherlands. The Journal of Early Adolescence, 30(1), 27–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0272431609342984
• Verkuyten, M., Thijs, J., & Stevens, G. (2012). Multiple identities and religious transmission: A study among Moroccan-Dutch Muslim adolescents and their parents. Child Development, 83(5), 1577–1590. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01794.x
• Vermeij, L., van Duijn, M. A. J., & Baerveldt, C. (2009). Ethnic segregation in context: Social discrimination among native Dutch pupils and their ethnic minority classmates. Social Networks, 31(4), 230–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socnet.2009.06.002
• Voas, D., & Fleischmann, F. (2012). Islam moves west: Religious change in the first and second generations. Annual Review of Sociology, 38(1), 525–545. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-071811-145455
• Vygotsky, L. S. (1962). Thought and Language. Cambridge: MA: MIT Press.
• Windzio, M., & Wingens, M. (2014). Religion, friendship networks and home visits of immigrant and native children. Acta Sociologica, 57(1), 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001699313481226
• Yedidia, T., & Lipschitz-Elchawi, R. (2012). Examining social perceptions between Arab and Jewish children through Human Figure Drawings. Art Therapy, 29(3), 104–112. https://doi.org/10.1080/07421656.2012.703052
• Yıldırım, A., & Şimşek, H. (2016). Sosyal bilimlere nitel araştırma yöntemleri (10. basım). Ankara: Seçkin yayıncılık.
• Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2010). Religiosity as identity: Toward an understanding of religion from a social identity perspective. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 14(1), 60–71. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868309349693
• Ysseldyk, R., Matheson, K., & Anisman, H. (2011). Coping with identity threat: The role of religious orientation and implications for emotions and action intentions. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3(2), 132–148. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0021599