PANDEMİ VE DÜZENSİZ GÖÇ: AVRUPA BİRLİĞİ DÜZENSİZ GÖÇ POLİTİKASININ TÜRKİYE VE LİBYA MUTABAKATLARI BAĞLAMINDA ELEŞTİREL BİR ANALİZİ

Öz

Bu çalışma Türkiye ve Libya mutabakatlarının Covid-19 pandemisi sürecinde gösterdiği performans temelinde Avrupa Birliği (AB) düzensiz göç politikasının eleştirel bir analizini yapmaktadır. Çalışma pandeminin söz konusu mutabakatların özellikle uluslararası işbirliği ve düzensiz göç yönetimi kapasitelerine ilişkin sonuçlarına dair iki temel bulguya ulaşmıştır: 1) Mutabakatlar sürdürülebilirlik ve dayanıklılık açısından yetersiz kalmıştır. 2) Hedefleri düzensiz göç akımlarının azaltılması, koruma imkânlarına erişimin geliştirilmesi, düzensiz göçe yönelik uluslararası işbirliğinin pekiştirilmesi olan mutabakatlar insani ve uluslararası işbirliğini aşındırmıştır. Sonuçta, çalışma AB’nin düzensiz göç diplomasisinin revize edilmesinde insani ve uluslararası işbirliğinin geliştirilmesinin yanı sıra transit ve kaynak ülkelerdeki göç yönetimi kapasitelerinin güçlendirilmesinin faydalı olacağını savunmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Düzensiz Göç
• Türkiye Mutabakatı
• Libya Mutabakatı
• Avrupa Birliği Göç Politikası
• Covid-19 Pandemisi

Pandemic and Irregular Migration: A Critical Review of the European Union’s Irregular Migration Policy on the basis of the Turkey and Libya Deals

Abstract

This study critically reviews the European Union’s (EU) irregular migration policy based on the Turkey and Libya deals’ performance during the Covid-19 pandemic. The study has two main findings about how the pandemic has affected the deals’ performance especially as to international cooperation and irregular migration management capacities: 1) The deals have failed in terms of sustainability and resilience. 2) The deals - aiming to reduce the irregular migration flows, improve access to protection, strengthen the international cooperation on irregular migration – have undermined the humanitarian and international cooperation. In conclusion, the study argues that strengthening the migration management capacities in transit and source countries as well as improving the humanitarian and international cooperation will be beneficial to overhauling of the EU’s irregular migration diplomacy.

Keywords

• Irregular Migration
• Turkey Deal
• Libya Deal
• European Union Migration Policy
• Covid-19 Pandemic

Kaynakça

1. Açıkgöz, Ömer, and Aslı Günay. “The Early Impact of the Covid-19 Pandemic on the Global and Turkish Economy.” Turkish Journal of Medical Sciences 50 (2020): 520–26.
2. Albrecht, Ulrich, Christine Chinkin, Kemal Dervis, Renata Dwan, Anthony Giddens, Nicole Gnesotto, Mary Kaldor, et al. “A Human Security Doctrine for Europe: The Barcelona Report of the Study Group on Europe’s Security Capabilities.” Barcelona, 2004. https://www.consilium.europa.eu/uedocs/cms_data/docs/pressdata/solana/040915CapBar.pdf.
3. Amnesty International. “The Human Cost of Fortress Europe: Human Rights Violations against Migrants and Refugees at Europe’s Borders.” London, 2014. amnesty.org/en/documents/EUR05/001/2014/en/.
4. Argaz, Tarık. “Conflict and Pandemic Drive More People to Risk Deadly Sea Route from Libya.” Tripoli, 2021. https://www.unhcr.org/news/latest/2020/5/5eb503954/conflict-pandemic-drive-people-risk-deadly-sea-route-libya.html.
5. Arribas, Gloria F. “The EU-Turkey Agreement. A Controversial Attempt at Patching up a Major Problem.” European Papers 1, no. 3 (2016): 1097–1104. https://www.europeanpapers.eu/en/system/files/pdf_version/EP_EF_2016_I_040_Gloria_Fernandez_Arribas_00080.pdf.
6. Aydın-Düzgit, Senem, Fuat Keyman, and Kristen S. Biehl. “Changing Parameters of Migration Cooperation: Beyond the EU-Turkey Deal?” Istanbul, 2019. https://research.sabanciuniv.edu/40170/1/changing-parameters-of-migration-cooperation-beyond-the-eu-turkey-deal-0a0024-1.pdf.
7. Aydın, Hasan, Mahmut Gündoğdu, and Arif Akgül. “Integration of Syrian Refugees in Turkey: Understanding the Educators’ Perception.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 20 (2016): 1029–40.
8. Babuç, Zeynep T. “A Relational Sociological Analysis on the Impact of COVID-19 Pandemic Lockdown on Syrian Migrants’ Lives in Turkey: The Case of Mersin Province.” Journal of International Migration and Integration 12, no. 1 (2021): 1–22.

9. Bahar Özvarış, Şevket, İlker Kayı, Deniz Mardin, Sibel Sakarya, Abdulkarim Ekzayez, Kristen Meagher, and Preeti Patel. “COVID-19 Barriers and Response Strategies for Refugees and Undocumented Migrants in Turkey.” Journal of Migration and Health 1–2 (2020): 100012. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmh.2020.100012.
10. Baldwin-Edwards, Martin, and Derek Lutterbeck. “Coping with the Libyan Migration Crisis.” Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 45, no. 12 (2019): 2241–57.
11. Boswell, Christina. “The ‘External Dimension’ of EU Immigration and Asylum Policy.” International Affairs 79, no. 3 (2003): 619–38.
12. Brachet, Julien. “Policing the Desert: The IOM in Libya Beyond War and Peace.” Antipode 48, no. 2 (2015): 272–92.
13. Budak, Fatih, and Sedat Bostan. “The Effects of Covid-19 Pandemic on Syrian Refugees in Turkey: The Case of Kilis.” Social Work in Public Health 35, no. 7 (2020): 579–89.
14. Buonfino, Alessandra. “Between Unity and Plurality: The Politicization and Securitization of the Discourse of Immigration in Europe.” New Political Science 26, no. 1 (2004): 23–49.
15. Casas-Cortes, Maribel, Sebastian Cobarrubias, and John Pickles. “Riding Routes and Itinerant Borders: Autonomy of Migration and Border Externalization.” Antipode 47, no. 4 (2015): 894–914.
16. Çelik, Çetin, and Ahmet İçduygu. “Schools and Refugee Children: The Case of Syrians in Turkey.” International Migration 57, no. 2 (2019): 253–67.
17. CGTN. “COVID-19 Increasing Risk to Migrant Rights in Libya: Report,” 2021. https://africa.cgtn.com/2021/09/06/covid-19-increasing-risk-to-migrant-rights-in-libya-report/.
18. Clapp, Alex. “Europe Turns Its Back on Refugees—and Its Own Values.” Foregin Affairs. Athens, March 2020. https://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/greece/2020-03-17/europe-turns-its-back-refugees-and-its-own-values.
19. Council of Europe. “European Countries Must Urgently Change Their Migration Policies Which Endanger Refugees and Migrants Crossing the Mediterranean.” Follow-up Report, 2021. https://www.coe.int/en/web/commissioner/-/european-countries-must-urgently-change-their-migration-policies-which-endanger-refugees-and-migrants-crossing-the-mediterranean.
20. Council of the European Union, and European Parliament. Union Code on the rules governing the movement of persons across borders (Schengen Borders Code) (codification) (2016).
21. Dannreuther, Roland. “Developing the Alternative to Enlargement: The European Neighbourhood Policy.” European Foreign Affairs Review 11, no. 2 (2006): 183–201.
22. De Guttry, Andrea, Francesca Capone, and Emanuele Sommario. “Dealing with Migrants in the Central Mediterranean Route: A Legal Analysis of Recent Bilateral Agreements Between Italy and Libya.” International Migration, 2017, 1–17.
23. European Asylum Support Office Asylum Report. “Annual Report on the Situation of Asylum in the European Union,” 2020. https://euaa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EASO-Asylum-Report-2020.pdf.
24. European Council on Refugees and Exiles. “Report on the Application of the Dublin II Regulation in Europe,” 2006. http://www.ecre.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/ECRE-ELENA-Report-on-the-Application-of-the-Dublin-II-Regulation-in-Europe-_March-2006.pdf.
25. Eilstrup-Sangiovanni, Mette. “Re-Bordering Europe? Collective Action Barriers to ‘Fortress Europe.'” Journal of European Public Policy 28, no. 3 (2021): 447–67.
26. Elçi, Ezgi, Eda Kirişçioğlu, and Aysen Üstübici. “How Covid-19 Financially Hit Urban Refugees: Evidence from Mixedmethod Research with Citizens and Syrian Refugees in Turkey.” Disasters 45, no. S1 (2021): 240–63.
27. Fernández-Molina, Irene, and Miguel. H. De Larramendi. “Migration Diplomacy in a de Facto Destination Country: Morocco’s New Intermestic Migration Policy and International Socialization by/with the EU.” Mediterranean Politics, 2020, 1–24.
28. FRONTEX. “Risk Analysis for 2017.” Warsaw, 2017. https://frontex.europa.eu/assets/Publications/Risk_Analysis/Annual_Risk_Analysis_2017.pdf.
29. Geddes, Andrew. The Politics of Migration and Immigration in Europe. London: SAGE, 2003.
30. Goldberg, L. “European Union Releases Facts and Figures for Migrant and Refugees Arrivals in 2018.” UN Dispatch, 2018. https://www.undispatch.com/european-union-releases-facts-and-figures-for-migrant-and-refugees-arrivals-in-2018/.
31. Greenhill, Kelly M. “Open Arms Behind Barred Doors: Fear, Hypocrisy and Policy Schizophrenia in the European Migration Crisis.” European Law Journal 22, no. 3 (2016): 317–332.
32. Guadagno, Lorenzo “Migrants and the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Initial Analysis.” Geneva, 2020. https://publications.iom.int/system/files/pdf/mrs-60.pdf.
33. Guiraudon, Virginie. “The 2015 Refugee Crisis Was Not a Turning Point: Explaining Policy Inertia in EU Border Control.” European Political Science 17 (2018): 151–60.
34. Hamood, Sara. “EU–Libya Cooperation on Migration: A Raw Deal for Refugees and Migrants?” Journal of Refugee Studies 21, no. 1 (2008): 19–42.
35. Huysmans, Jef. “The European Union and the Securitization of Migration.” Journal of Common Market Studies 38, no. 5 (2000): 751–77.
36. İçduygu, Ahmet, and Damla B. Aksel. “Two-to-Tango in Migration Diplomacy: Negotiating Readmission Agreement between the Eu and Turkey.” European Journal of Migration and Law 16 (2014): 336–62.
37. International Organization for Migration. “Covid-19 and Vaccination in Libya: An Assessment of Migrants’ Knowledge, Attitudes & Practices,” 2021. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/DTM_Libya_MHD_KAP_Report_FINAL.pdf.
38. International Organization for Migration. “Key Migration Term,” 2021. https://www.iom.int/key-migration-terms#Irregular-migration.
39. Kamat, Anjali, and Ahmad Shokr. “Libya.” In Dispatches from the Arab Spring: Understanding the New Middle East, edited by Paul Amar and Viyaj Prashad, 157–203. Minneapolis: MN: University of Minnesota Press, 2013.
40. Karasapan, Ömer. “Libya and Its Migrants Confront New Threats,” 2020. https://www.brookings.edu/blog/future-development/2020/05/20/libya-and-its-migrants-confront-new-threats/.
41. Karyotis, Georgios. “European Migration Policy in the Aftermath of September 11: The Security–Migration Nexus.” Innovation: The European Journal of Social Science Research 20, no. 1 (2007): 1–17.
42. Kaya, Ayhan. Avrupa Birliği Hakkında Merak Ettikleriniz: Avrupa Birliği’ne Giriş. İstanbul: Hiperlink Yayınları, 2013.
43. Kaya, Ayhan. “Migration as a Leverage Tool in International Relations: Turkey as a Case Study.” Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 17 (2020): 21–39.
44. Kirişçi, Kemal. “As EU-Turkey Migration Agreement Reaches the Five-Yearmark, Add a Job Creation Element,” 2021. brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2021/03/17/as-eu-turkey-migration-agreement-reaches-the-five-year-mark-add-a-job-creation-element/.
45. Kurt, Gülşah, Zeynep Ilkkursun, Arash Javanbakht, Ersin Uygun, Akfer Karaoglan-Kahilogullari, and Ceren Acarturk. “The Psychological Impacts of COVID-19 Related Stressors on Syrian Refugees in Turkey: The Role of Resource Loss, Discrimination, and Social Support.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 85 (2021): 130–40. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2021.09.009.
46. Larémont, Ricardo R., Mustafa O. Attir, and Moussa Mahamadou. “European Union and Italian Migration Policy and the Probable Destabilization of Southern Libya and Northern Niger.” The Journal of the Middle East and Africa 11, no. 4 (2020): 359–80.
47. Lehner, Roman. “The EU-Turkey-’deal’: Legal Challenges and Pitfalls.” International Migration 57, no. 2 (2018): 1–10.
48. Malakooti, Arezo. “Mixed Migration: Libya at the Crossroads Mapping of Migration Routes from Africa to Europe and Drivers of Migration in Post-Revolution Libya.” Tripoli, 2013. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/52b43f594.pdf.
49. McConnachie, Kirsten. “Refugee Protection and the Art of the Deal.” Journal of Human Rights Practice 9 (2017): 190–96.
50. Menguaslan, Hikmet, and Murat N. Arman. “Turkish and Libyan Refugee Deals: A Critical Analysis of the European Union’s Securitarian Irregular Migration Policy.” Journal of Liberty and International Affairs 8, no. 1 (2022): 340–59.
51. Moreno-Lax, Violeta. “EUROPE IN CRISIS: Facilitating Access to Protection, (Discarding) Offshore Processing and Mapping Alternatives for the Way Forward.” Brussels, 2015. https://redcross.eu/uploads/files/Positions/Migration/Externalisation/Europe in Crisis_Dr Moreno-Lax_final.pdf.
52. Müller, Patrick, and Peter Slominski. “Breaking the Legal Link but Not the Law? The Externalization of EU Migration Control through Orchestration in the Central Mediterranean.” Journal of European Public Policy 28, no. 6 (2021): 801–20.
53. Natter, K. “The Formation of Morocco’s Policy Towards Irregular Migration (2000–2007): Political Rationale and Policy Processes.” International Migration 52 (2014): 15–28.
54. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Humanitarian Needs Overview Libya,” 2020. https://www.humanitarianresponse.info/sites/www.humanitarianresponse.info/files/documents/files/hno_2021-final.pdf.
55. Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. “Multi-Sector Needs Assessment: Libyan Population,” 2021. https://reliefweb.int/sites/reliefweb.int/files/resources/REACH_LBY_REPORT_LBY2001a_March2021.pdf.
56. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. “A Pandemic of Exclusion The Impact of COVID-19 on the Human Rights of Migrants in Libya,” 2021. https://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Issues/Migration/A_pandemic_of_exclusion.pdf.
57. Öztığ, Lacin I. “The Turkish–Greek Border Crisis and COVID-19.” Borders in Globalization Review 2, no. 1 (2020): 78–81.
58. Öztürk, Fundanur. “Altındağ’da Neler Yaşandı, Mahalle Halkı Yaşananlar Için Ne Diyor?” BBC News. 2021. https://www.bbc.com/turkce/haberler-turkiye-58180854.
59. Panebianco, Stefania. “Towards a Human and Humane Approach? The EU Discourse on Migration amidst the Covid-19 Crisis.” The International Spectator 56, no. 2 (2021): 19–37.
60. Phillimore, Jenny, Sandra Pertek, Selin Akyuz, Hoayda Darkal, Jeanine Hourani, Pip McKnight, Saime Ozcurumez, and Sarah Taal. “‘We Are Forgotten’: Forced Migration, Sexual and Gender-Based Violence, and Coronavirus Disease-2019.” Violence Against Women, September 17, 2021, 10778012211030944. doi:10.1177/10778012211030943.
61. Pradellla, Lucia, and Sahar T. Rad. “Libya and Europe: Imperialism, Crisis and Migration.” Third World Quarterly 38, no. 11 (2017): 2411–27.
62. Reliefweb. “Impact of COVID-19 Outbreak on Syrian Refugees in Turkey,” 2020. https://reliefweb.int/report/turkey/impact-covid-19-outbreak-syrian-refugees-turkey-results-rapidneeds-%0Aassessment.
63. Saatçioğlu, Beken. “The EU’s Response to the Syrian Refugee Crisis: A Battleground among Many Europes.” European Politics and Society 22, no. 5 (2021): 808–23.
64. Saatçioğlu, Beken. “The European Union’s Refugee Crisis and Rising Functionalism in EU-Turkey Relations.” Turkish Studies 21, no. 2 (2020): 169–87.
65. Sadık, Giray, ve Ceren Kaya. “AB Göç Politikalarının ve Sınır Yönetiminin Güvenlikleştirilmesinde Gözetim Teknolojilerinin Rolü.” Uluslararası İlişkiler Dergisi 17, no. 68 (2020): 145–60.
66. Scazzieri, Luigi, and John Springford. “How the EU and Third Countries Can Manage Migration,” 2017. https://www.cer.eu/sites/default/files/pbrief_amato_migration_1nov17.pdf.
67. Seeberg, Peter. “The EU-Turkey March 2016 Agreement As a Model: New Refugee Regimes and Practices in the Arab Mediterranean and the Case of Libya.” Odense, 2016.
68. Sığınmacılar ve Göçmenlerle Dayanışma Derneği. “Sectoral Analysis of the Impacts of COVID—19 Pandemic on Refugees Living in Turkey,” 2020. https://data2.unhcr.org/en/documents/details/76640.
69. Stalker, Peter. “Migration Trends and Migration Policy in Europe.” International Migration 40, no. 5 (2002): 151–79.
70. Stalker, Peter. “The Work of Strangers: A Survey of International Labour Migration.” Geneva, 1994. http://hdl.voced.edu.au/10707/122141.
71. Sterkx, Steven. “The External Dimension of EU Asylum and Migration Policy: Expanding Fortress Europe?” In Europe’s Global Role: External Policies of the European Union, edited by Jan Orbie, 117–38. Farnham: Ashgate, 2008.
72. Terry, Kyilah. “The EU-Turkey Deal, Five Years On: A Frayed and Controversial but Enduring Blueprint,” 2021. https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/eu-turkey-deal-five-years-on#:~:text=Migration Information Source-,The EU-Turkey Deal%2C Five Years On%3A A Frayed,and Controversial but Enduring Blueprint&text=Irregular migrants attempting to enter,new migratory r.
73. Thevenin, Elodie. “Between Human Rights and Security Concerns: Politicisation of EU-Turkey and EU-Libya Agreements on Migration in National Parliaments.” European Security 30, no. 3 (2021): 464–84.
74. Toaldo, Mattia. “Migrations through and from Libya: A Mediterranean Challenge.” IAI Working Paper. Rome, 2015.
75. Toaldo, Mattia. “The EU Deal with Libya on Migration: A Question of Fairness and Effectiveness.” European Council on Foreign Relations, 2017. https://ecfr.eu/article/commentary_the_eu_deal_with_libya_on_migration_a_question_of_fairness_a/.
76. Tsourapas, Gerasimos. “Migration Diplomacy in the Global South: Cooperation, Coercion and Issue Linkage in Gaddafi’s Libya.” Third World Quarterly 38, no. 10 (2017): 2367–85.
77. Uçarer, Emek M. “The Area of Freedom, Security and Justice.” In European Union Politics, edited by Michele Cini and Nieves Borragan P-S, Fourth., 281–95. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013.
78. UN Human Rights. “Report: COVID-19 Increasing Risk to Migrant Rights in Libya,” 2021. https://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/Migrants-in-Libya.aspx.
79. UN Human Rights, and United Nations Support Mission in Libya. “Detained and Dehumanised: Report on Human Rights Abuses against Migrants in Libya,” 2016. http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Countries/LY/DetainedAndDehumanised_en.pdf.
80. Üstübici, Ayşen, and Sibel Karadağ. “Refugee Protection in Turkey during the First Phase of the COVID-19 Pandemic TURKEY Interim Report.” İstanbul, 2020. http://admigov.eu.
81. Yücel, Alev. “Symbolic Annihilation of Syrian Refugees by Turkish News Media during the COVID-19 Pandemic.” International Journal for Equity in Health 20, no. 1 (2021): 137. doi:10.1186/s12939-021-01472-9.
82. Zaragoza-Cristiani, Jonathan. “Analysing the Causes of the Refugee Crisis and the Key Role of Turkey : Why Now and Why so Many?” EUI Working Paper. Italy, 2015. https://cadmus.eui.eu/bitstream/handle/1814/38226/RSCAS_2015_95.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.
83. Zaragoza-Cristiani, Jonathan. “Containing the Refugee Crisis: How the EU Turned the Balkans and Turkey into an EU Borderland.” The International Spectator 52, no. 4 (2017): 59–75.