The European Union as a Foreign Actor in Democratic Consolidation - Civil Society Debates

Abstract

One of the actors contributing to democratic consolidation process is civil society. While democratic consolidation process is sustained by domestic dynamics, they can be promoted by the influence of foreign dynamics. In this paper, the case of the European Union as a foreign actor which contributes to civil society and democratic consolidation processes in member and candidate countries is analyzed. In order to research the contribution of civil society to democratic consolidation, four criteria are determined: Intra-organizational democracy and protection of democratic values, raising public consciousness, mediation between state and society, protection of the rights of underrepresented groups. Within the framework of these four criteria, it is researched how the European Union contributes to democratic consolidation processes through civil society, and it is argued which issues are neglected for what reasons by the Union

Keywords

• Civil society
• democratic consolidation
• European Union

Demokrasinin Güçlenmesi-Sivil Toplum Tartışmalarında Bir Dış Aktör Olarak Avrupa Birliği

Öz

Demokrasinin güçlenmesi sürecine katkı sağlayan önemli aktörlerden biri de sivil toplumdur. Dünyadaki örnekler demokrasinin güçlenmesi sürecinin iç dinamikler ile sürdürülürken dış dinamiklerin etkisi ile de pekiştirilebildiğini göstermektedir. Bu çalışmada üye ve aday ülkelerdeki sivil toplum ile demokrasinin güçlenmesi süreçlerine bir dış aktör olarak katkı sağlayan Avrupa Birliği örneği incelenmektedir. Çalışmada sivil toplumun demokrasinin güçlenmesine katkısını incelemek üzere demokratikleşme literatürü temel alınarak dört kriter belirlenmiştir: Örgüt içi demokrasi ve demokratik değerleri koruma, kamu bilincini arttırma, devlet ve toplum arasında arabulucu rol oynama ve son olarak dışlanmış grupların haklarını koruma. Bu dört kriter çerçevesinde Avrupa Birliği’nin üye ve aday ülkelerdeki demokrasinin güçlenmesi süreçlerine sivil toplum aracılığıyla ne gibi katkılar sağladığı araştırılmakta ve Birlik’in hangi konuları neden ihmal ettiği tartışılmaktadır

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Sivil toplum
• demokrasinin güçlenmesi
• Avrupa Birliği

Kaynakça

1. Abay, Ali Rıza, “Sivil Toplum ve Demokrasi Bağlamında Sivil Dayanışma ve Sivil Toplum Örgütleri”, Üçüncü Ulusal Bilgi, Ekonomi ve Yönetim Kongresi, Eskişehir, 24-26.11.2004, .
2. Anheier, Helmut K., Lisa Carlson, Volkhart Finn Heinrich ve Kumi Naidoo, “The Civil Society Diamond: A Primer”, Civicus Occasional Paper Series, Cilt 1, No 2, 2001.
3. Börzel, Tanja ve Thomas Risse, “Governance Without a State: Can It Work?”, Regulation and Governance, Cilt 4, No. 2, 2010.
4. O’Brennan, John, “Enlargement Fatigue and its Impact on the Enlargement Process in the Western Balkans”, içinde The Crisis of EU Enlargement, London School of Economics’ Ideas–Special Report November 2013, ss. 36-44, http://www.lse.ac.uk/IDEAS/publications/reports/pdf/SR018/OBrennan.pdf.
5. Carothers, Thomas, Aiding Democracy Abroad. The Learning Curve, Washington, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999.
6. Commission of the European Communities, European Governance A White Paper, COM lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2001/com2001_0428en01.pdf> final, Brussels, 2001
7. Çakır, Özlem, “Avrupa Birliği’nde Güvenceli Esneklik ve Eğilimler”, Sosyo- Ekonomi, Cilt 2, 2009.
8. Dağı, İhsan “İnsan Hakları ve Demokratikleşme: Türkiye-Avrupa Birliği İlişkilerinde Siyasal Boyut”, Atilla Eralp (der.), Türkiye ve Avrupa (Batılılaşma Kalkınma Demokrasi), İmge Kitabevi, Ankara, 1997.

9. Dahl, Robert, “Can International Organizations be Democratic? A Skeptic’s View”, I. Shapiro ve C. Hacker-Cordon (der.), Democracy’s Edges, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
10. Diamond, Larry, “Civil Society and the Development of Democracy”, Estudio Working Paper, Sayı: 101, 1997
11. Diamond, Larry, “Demokrasinin Üç Paradoksu”, Larry Diamond ve Marc F. Plattner (der.), Ergun Özbudun, Levent Köker, Mehmet Turhan ve Levent Gönenç (çev.), Demokrasinin Küresel Yükselişi, Ankara, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
12. Diamond, Larry, Developing Democracy. Toward Consolidation, Baltimore ve Londra, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1999.
13. Diamond, Larry, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu ve Hung-mao Tien (der.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies. Themes and Perspectives, Baltimore ve Londra, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
14. Diamond, Larry, “In Search of Consolidation”, Larry Diamond, March F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu ve Hung-mao Tien (der.), Consolidating the Third Wave Democracies: Regional Challenges, London, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
15. Dryzek, John S., “Political Inclusion and the Dynamics of Democratization”, The American Political Science Review, Cilt 90, No 1, 1996.
16. Epstein, David L., et. al., “Democratic Transitions”, American Journal of Political Science, Cilt 50, No 3, 2006.
17. Fagan, Adam, “Taking Stock of Civil Society Development in Post-Communist Europe: Evidence from the Czech Republic”, Democratization, Cilt 12, No 4, 2005.
18. Fagan, Adam, “Neither ‘North’ nor ‘South’: The Environment and Civil Society in Post-Conflict Bosnia-Herzegovina”, Environmental Politics, Cilt 15, No 5, 2006.
19. Fagan, Adam, “EU Assistance for Civil Society in Kosovo: A Step too far for Democracy Promotion?”, Democratization, Cilt 18, No 3, 2011.
20. Fioramonti, Lorenzo, “Civil Societies and Democratization Assumptions, Dilemmas and the South African Experience”, Theoria, 2005.
21. Gasior-Niemiec, Anna, Piotr Glinski, “Europeanization of Civil Society in Poland”, Review of Social Policy, Cilt 14, No 1, 2007.
22. Grabowski, Pawel, Shayan Khawja, Jşlia Lampášová, Stephanie Schramm, “The Impact of the EU on Minority Rights Issues During the Accession Process”, New Dimensions of Security in Europe, Lifelong Learning Program, omes/papers_folder/MINORITY%20GROUPS%20RIGHTS_final.pdf>
23. Habermas, Jürgen, Between Facts and Norms. Contribution to a Discourse Theory of Law and Democracy, USA, The MIT Press, 1996.
24. Hakim, Peter ve Abraham F. Lowenthal, “Latin Amerika’nın Kırılgan Demokrasileri”, içinde Demokrasinin Küresel Yükselişi, (Ed. Larry Diamond ve Marc F. Plattner), çev. Ergun Özbudun, Levent Köker, Mehmet Turhan ve Levent Gönenç, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995, Ankara.
25. Haynes, Jeff, Democracy and Civil Society in the Third World. Politics and New Political Movements, Polity Press, Cambridge, Oxford, Madlen, Blackwell Publishers, 1997.
26. Hyde-Price, Adrian, “Democratization in Eastern Europe. The External Dimension”, Geoffrey Pridham, Tatu Vanhanen (der.), Democratization in Eastern Europe. Domestic and International Perspectives, London, New York, Routledge, 1994.
27. Hyde-Price, Adrian, “A ‘Tragic Actor’? A Realist Perspective of Ethical Power Europe”, International Affairs, Cilt 84, No 1, 2008.
28. Huntington, Samuel P., The Third Wave: Democratization in the Late 20th Century, USA, University of Oklahoma Press, 1993.
29. Huntington, Samuel P., “Will More Countries Become Democratic?”, Political Science Quarterly, Cilt 99, No 2, 1984.
30. Huntington, Samuel P., “Demokrasinin Üçüncü Dalgası”, Larry Diamond ve Marc F. Plattner (der.), Ergun Özbudun, Levent Köker, Mehmet Turhan ve Levent Gönenç (çev.), Demokrasinin Küresel Yükselişi, Ankara, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
31. Iankova, Elena A., Business, Government, and EU Accession Strategic Partnership and Conflict, UK, Lexington Books, 2009.
32. Jacobsson, Kerstin, Herman Schmid, “The European Employment Strategy at the Crossroads: Contribution to the Evaluation”, David Foden ve Lars Magnusson (der), Five Years Experience of the Luxembourg Employment Strategy European Trade Union Institution, Brussels, 2003
33. Jİrgensen, Henning, “Danish Flexicurity in Crisis or Just Stress-Tested by the Crisis?”, International Policy Analysis, Friedrich Ebert Stiftung, 2011
34. Kalaycıoğlu, Ersin, “Civic Culture in ‘Secular’ Turkey”, The Institute of Ismaili Studies, kalaycioglu.htm>
35. Kaczorowska, Alina, European Union Law, Second Edition, London, New York, Routledge, 2011.
36. Ketola, Markus Europeanisation and Civil Society. The Early Impact of EU Pre- Accession Policies on Turkish NGOs, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, London, London School of Economics, 2011.
37. Kubicek, Paul, European Union and Democratization, London, New York, Routledge, 2003.
38. Kurki, Milja, “Governmentality and EU Democracy Promotion: The European Instrument for Democracy and Human Rights and the Construction of Democratic Civil Societies”, International Political Sociology, Cilt 5, 2011.
39. Lane, David, “Civil Society in the Old and New Member States”, European Societies, Cilt 12, No 3, 2010.
40. Leigh, Ian, “Civil Society, Democracy and the Law”, Genova Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces Working Paper, No 130, 2004
41. Linz, Juan L. ve Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation, Southern Europe, South America, ABD, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996.
42. Magnette, Paul, “Democracy in the European Union: Why and How to Combine Representation and Participation” Stijn Sminsmans (der.), Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance, Edward Elgar Publishing, Britain, 2006.
43. Merkel, Wolfgang, “Embedded and Defective Democracies”, Democratization, Cilt 11, No 5, 2004.
44. Monaghan, Elizabeth, Civil Society, Democratic Legitimacy and the European Union: Democratic Linkage and the Debate on the Future of the EU, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Britain, University of Notthingham, 2007.
45. Parau, Christina Elena, “Impaling Dracula: How EU Accession Empowered Civil Society in Romania”, West European Politics, Cilt 32, No 1, 2009.
46. Petrov, Rumen, Luis Serra ve Marilyn Taylor, “Toward a Typology of Civil Society: Understanding Non-Government Public Action”, Bernard Enjolras, Karl Henrik Sivesind (der.), Civil Society in Comparative Perspective, , Comparative Social Research, Cilt 26, Emerald Group Publishing Limited, 2009.
47. Pridham, Geoffrey, “Democratic Transitions in Theory and Practice: Southern European Lessons for Eastern Europe”, Geoffrey Pridham, Tatu Vanhanen (der.), Democratization in Eastern Europe. Domestic and International Perspectives, New York, Routledge, 1994.
48. Pridham, Geoffrey, Tatu Vanhanen, Democratization in Eastern Europe: Domestic and International Perspectives, New York, Routledge, 1994.
49. Puhle, Hans-Jürgen, “Democratic Consolidation and Defective Democracies”, Estudio Working Paper, No 47, 2005
50. Rek, Mateja, “Europeanisation of Civil Society Sector in Central and Eastern Europe”, Innovative Issues and Approaches in Social Sciences, Cilt 3, No 1, 2010.
51. Roth, Silke, “Sisterhood and Solidarity? Women’s Organizations in the Expanded European Union”, Social Politics, Cilt 14, No 4, 2007.
52. Sanchez-Salgado, Rosa, “Giving a European Dimension to Civil Society Organisations”, Workshop on the Institutional Shaping of EU-Society Relationships, Connecting Excellence on European Governance (CONNEX), Mannheim, typo3/site/index.php?id=478>
53. Schmitter, Philippe C., “Civil Society: East and West,” Larry Diamond, Marc F. Plattner, Yun-han Chu ve Hung-mao Tien (der.), Consolidating Third Wave Democracies: Themes and Perspectives, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997.
54. Schmitter, Philippe ve Terry Lynn Karl, “Demokrasi Nedir, Ne Değildir”, Larry Diamond ve Marc F. Plattner (der.), Ergun Özbudun, Levent Köker, Mehmet Turhan ve Levent Gönenç (çev.), Demokrasinin Küresel Yükselişi, Ankara, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995.
55. Scholte, Jan Aart, “Civil Society and Democracy in Global Governance”, Global Governance, Cilt 8, 2002.
56. Secretariat of the Minister for Special Assignments for Society Integration Affairs, The Development of Civil Society in Latvia: An Analysis 2002/2003, Phare Project LE01.03.02, Riga, 2004
57. Sedelmeier, Ulrich, “Europe after the Eastern Enlargement of the European Union: 2000-2014”, Heinrich Böll Stiftung, 2014.
58. Smismans, Stijn (der.), Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance, USA, UK, Edward Elgar, 2006.
59. Spurga, Saulius, “Europeanization of Civil Society in the Baltic States: Promotion or Constraint of Democratization?”, Viešoji politika ir administravimas, No 22, 2007.
60. Torus, Emre, “Understanding the Role of Civil Society as an Agent for Democratic Consolidation: The Turkish Case”, Turkish Studies, Cilt 8, No 3, 2007.
61. Tömmel, Ingeborg, “The New Neighbourhood Policy of the EU: An Appropriate Response to the Arab Spring?” Democracy and Security, Cilt. 9, No. 19, 2013.
62. Warleigh, Alex, “Europeanizing Civil Society: NGOs as Agents of Political Socialization”, Journal of Common Market Studies, Cilt 39, No 4, 2001.
63. Warleigh, Alex, “Civil Society and Legitimate Governance in a Flexible Europe: Critical Deliberativism as a Way Forward”, Stijn Sminsmans (der.), Civil Society and Legitimate European Governance, Britain, Edward Elgar Publishing, 2006.
64. Whitehead, Laurence, “International Aspects of Democratization”, G. O’Donnell, P.C. Schmitter ve L. Whitehead (der.), Transitions from Authoritarian Rule - Comparative Perspectives, Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986.
65. Youngs, Richard, The European Union and the Promotion of Democracy, USA, Oxford University Press, 2002.
66. Youngs, Richard, “Is European Democracy Promotion on the Wane?”, Center for European Policy Studies Working Document, No 292, 2008
67. Youngs, Richard “Democracy Promotion: The Case of European Union Strategy”, Center for European Policy Studies Working Document, No 167, 2001