The Mediating Effect of Religious Attitude on the Relationship Between Mindfulness and Covid-19 Fear

Öz

The worldwide Covid-19 pandemic, which has significantly affected the entire globe for the past three years, has also influenced daily life and mental well-being in various ways. Many studies have emphasized that the use of religion as a coping mechanism can be an effective factor in improving mental health. Therefore, this study examines the cross-sectional relationship between religious attitude, mindfulness, and Covid-19 fear besides the Covid-19 anxiety levels that individuals are exposed to and evaluates the mediating role of religiosity in this relationship. A survey of 440 participants with most were female (80.2%) and single (68.2%) were obtained online by random sampling. The demographic results indicated that women exhibited a higher level of Covid-19 fear compared to men, showing a significant difference. In religious attitude and mindfulness scores, there was no significant difference observed by gender. The correlational analysis demonstrated that a higher fear of Covid-19 was significantly linked to lower levels of mindfulness and religious attitude, but it did not show any significant association with religious coping. The mediational analysis indicated that religious attitude acts as a partial mediator in the association between trait mindfulness and fear of Covid-19, implying that the impact of mindfulness on fear of Covid-19 was explained by the influence of religious attitude. While limitations of the study design exist, the findings suggest that belief-based behaviors may play an active role in mental health management during crises, and strategies that promote religious attitudes and mindfulness during times of life crises requires further investigations.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Health Psychology
• Mental Health
• Mindfulness
• Covid-19 Fear
• Religiosity

Kaynakça

1. Abdel-Khalek, AM (2013). The relationships between subjective well-being, health, and religiosity among young adults from Qatar. Mental Health, Religion and Culture, 16(3), 306–318.
2. Ahorsu, D. K., Lin, C. Y., Imani, V., Saffari, M., Griffiths, M. D., and Pakpour, A. H. (2020). The fear of COVID-19 Scale: Development and initial validation. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00270-8.
3. Angın, Y. (2021). A research on the relationship between religious coping and psychological resilience in healthcare professionals during Covid-19 pandemic. Cumhuriyet Theology Journal, 25(1), 331-345.
4. Ano, G. G., and Vasconcelles, E. B. (2005). Religious coping and psychological adjustment to stress: a meta-analysis. Journal of clinical psychology, 61(4), 461–480. https://doi.org/10.1002/jclp.20049
5. Arslan, G. (2021). Understanding wellbeing and death obsession of young adults in the context of Coronavirus experiences: Mitigating the effect of mindful awareness. Death Studies, 1-10. https://doi.org/10.1080/07481187.2020.1871122
6. Arslan, Ü., Muyan-yılık, M., Bakalım, O., Bayraktar Uyar, B. and Sağlıklı, H. (2021). Relationship between intolerance of uncertainty and psychological wellbeing during the COVID-19 pandemic: The mediating role of mindfulness. Cukurova University Faculty of Education Journal, 50(1), 379-399.
7. Ayalp, H. D. and Hisli Şahin, N. (2018). Beş Faktörlü Bilgece Farkındalık Ölçeği - Kısa Formu’nun (BFBFÖ-K) Türkçe uyarlaması. Klinik Psikoloji Dergisi, 2(3), 117-127.
8. Aydın, C. (2019). Dindarlık ile bilinçli farkındalık arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 47, 241-269. https://doi.org/10.17120/omuifd.617003

9. Awaad, R., Nursoy-Demir, M., and Khalil, A. et al. (2023). Islamic civilizations and plagues: The role of religion, faith and psychology during pandemics. Journal of Religion and Health, 62, 1379–1393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-023-01765-z
10. Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T. and Allen, K. B. (2004). Assessment of mindfulness by self-report: The Kentucky Inventory of Mindfulness Skills. Assessment, 11, 191-206.
11. Baer, R. A., Smith, G. T., Hopkins, J., Krietemeyer, J. and Toney, L. (2006). Using self-report assessment methods to explore facets of mindfulness. Assessment, 13(1), 27-45.
12. Bakioğlu, F., Korkmaz, O., and Ercan, H. (2020). Fear of COVID-19 and positivity: Mediating role of intolerance of uncertainty, depression, anxiety, and stress. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00331-y
13. Balıkçı, Ü. (2023). Bilgelik, bilinçli farkındalık ve dindarlık arasındaki ilişki. [Yayımlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi]. Sakarya Üniversitesi.
14. Belen, H. (2022). Fear of COVID-19 and mental health: The role of mindfulness in during times of crisis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20(1), 607-618. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00470-2
15. Bishop, S. R., Lau, M., Shapiro, S., Carlson, L., Anderson, N. D., Carmody, J., Segal, Z. V., Abbey, S., Speca, M., Velting, D. and Devins, G. (2004). Mindfulness: A proposed operational definition. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 11, 230-241.
16. Brown, K. W. and Ryan, R. M. (2003). The benefits of being present: mindfulness and its role in psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84(4), 822848.
17. Chin, G., Anyanso, V., and Greeson, J. (2019). Addresing diversity in mindfulness research on health: A narrative review using the addresing framework. Cooper Rowan Medical Journal, 1(1), 2.
18. Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed. ed.). Hillsdale, Lawrence Earlbaum Associates Inc.
19. Conversano, C., Di Giuseppe, M., Miccoli, M., Ciacchini, R., Gemignani, A. and Orrù, G. (2020). Mindfulness, age and gender as protective factors against psychological distress during Covid-19 pandemic. Front. Psychol. 11, 1900. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01900
20. Çıtak, Ş. and Pekdemir, Ü. (2020). An analysis on sleep habits and generalized anxiety levels of individuals during the COVİD-19 pandemic. Journal of Family Counseling and Education, 5(1), 60-73. DOI: 10.32568/jfce.742086
21. Çetinkaya, M. (2023). Spirituality and happiness. A study of London Muslim youth. İlahiyat. Ankara.
22. David, A.B., Park, C. L., Awao, S., and Vega, S. et al. (2023). Religiousness in the first year of COVID-19: A systematic review of empirical research. Curr Res Ecol Soc Psychol, 4(100075). doi: 10.1016/j.cresp.2022.100075.
23. Dehghan, M., Namjoo, Z., Mohammadi Akbarabadi, F., Fooladi, Z., and Zakeri, M. A. (2021). The relationship between anxiety, stress, spiritual health, and mindfulness among patients undergoing hemodialysis: A survey during the COVID-19 outbreak in Southeast Iran. Health Sci. Repor. 4, e461. doi: 10.1002/hsr1002.1461
24. Doğan, M. and Karaca, F. (2021). An Investigation on the Relationship between Death Anxiety and Religious Coping of Actively Working Health Care Workers during the Covid-19 Pandemic. Journal of Theology Research 55(1), 327-351. Doi: 10.29288/ilted.885721
25. Durmuş, M. and Durar, E. (2021). The relationship between spiritual wellbeing and fear of COVID-19 among Turkish elders. Journal of Religion, Spirituality and Aging, 34(1), 1-14. Doi: 10.1080/15528030.2021.1894627
26. Ekşi, H. and Sayın, M. (2016, May). The adaptation of Religious Coping Scale into Turkish language: A study of bilingual equivalence, validity and reliability. Paper presented at the AGP Humanities and Social Sciences Conference, BAU International Berlin University, 19-22 May, Berlin, Germany.
27. Erdfelder, E., FAul, F., Buchner, A., and Lang, A. G. (2009). Statistical power analyses using G*Power 3.1: Tests for correlation and regression analyses. Behavior Research Methods, 41(4), 1149–1160.
28. Exline, J. J., and Rose, E. D. (2013). Religious and spiritual struggles. In R. F. Paloutzian and C. L. Park (Eds.), Handbook of the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality (pp. 380-398). The Guilford Press.
29. Falkenström, F. (2010). Studying mindfulness in experienced meditators: a quasi-experimental approach. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 305-310.
30. Galea, S., Merchant, R. M., and Lurie, N. (2020). The mental health consequences of COVID-19 and physical distancing: The need for prevention and early intervention. JAMA Internal Medicine, 180(6), 817-818.
31. Gashi, F. (2020). Koronavirüse yakalanmış kişilerde tedavi döneminde dini başa çıkmanın etkisi. Pamukkale Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi 7(1), 511-535. https://doi.org/10.17859/pauifd.735931
32. Germer, D., Siegel, R., and Fulton, P. (2005). Mindfulness and psychotherapy. Guildford Press. Gilbert, M, Pullano, G, Pinotti, F, Valdano, E, Poletto, C, Bo ̈elle, P-Y, et al. (2020). Preparedness and vulnerability of African countries against importations of COVID-19: a modelling study. The Lancet, 395(10227), 871-877.
33. Gireyhan, A. G. (2022). The moderator role of spirituality on the relationship between fear of COVID-19 and psychological well-being. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 7(2), 143–155. https://dx.doi.org/10.37898/spc.2022.7.2.164
34. Gülerce, H., and Maraj, H. A. (2021). Resilience and hopelessness in Turkish society: Exploring the role of spirituality in the covid-19 pandemic. Journal of Economy Culture and Society, 2021(63), 1-15. doi: 10.26650/JECS2020-0075.
35. Gürbüz, S., and Bayık, M. E. (2021). Aracılık modellerinin analizinde yeni yaklaşım: Baron ve Kenny’nin yöntemi hâlâ geçerli mi? Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 37(99), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.31828/tpd1300443320191125m000031
36. Hackney, C. H., and Sanders, G. S. (2003). Religiosity and mental health: A meta-analysis of recent studies. Journal for the scientific study of religion, 42(1), 43–55.
37. Hayes, A. F. (2022). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach (3rd Ed.). The Guilford Press.
38. İnel Manav, A., Atik, D., Coşkun, E. and Bozkurt, A. (2021). Yaşlılarda COVID-19 pandemi sürecinde bilinçli farkındalık, başa çıkma tutumları ve kişisel iyi oluş. Turkish Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 15(1), 85-92. DOI: 10.21763/tjfmpc.808383
39. Kabat-Zinn, J. (2015). Wherever you go, there you are: Mindfulness meditation in everyday life. China Machine Press.
40. Karatas ̧, Z., Uzun, K., and Tagay, Ö. (2021). Relationships between the life satisfaction, meaning in life, Hope, and COVID-19 fear for Turkish adults during the COVID-19 outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 778.
41. Karslı, N. (2020). Covid 19 algısı, sağlık bilişleri ve dindarlık. Dindarlık kişilik ve ruh sağlığı. N. Gencer and M. Cengil (Eds.), Dindarlık kişilik ve ruh sağlığı (s. 37-62) içinde. Çamlıca Yayınları.
42. Kasapoğlu, F. (2020). Examining the relationship between fear of covid-19 and spiritual wellbeing. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 5(3), 341-354. doi: 10.37898/spc.2020.5.3.121
43. Koenig, H. G. (2018). Religion and mental health: Research and clinical applications. Academic Press.
44. Koenig, H. G. (2020). Maintaining health and well-being by putting faith into action during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Religion and Health, 59(5), 2205–2214.
45. Koenig, H. G., George, L. K., and Siegler, I. C. (1988). The use of religion and other emotion-regulating coping strategies among older adults. The Gerontologist, 28(3), 303–310. https://doi.org/10.1093/geront/28.3.303
46. Kranz, D., Niepel, C., Botes, E., Greiff, S., (2020). Religiosity predicts unreasonable coping with COVID-19. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality. doi:10.1037/rel0000395
47. Kul, A., Demir, R., and Katmer, A. N. (2020). Covid-19 salgını döneminde psikolojik sağlamlığın yordayıcısı olarak yaşam anlamı ve kaygı. Turkish Studies, 15(6), 695-719. https://dx.doi. org/10.7827/TurkishStudies.44419
48. Lazaridou, A. and Pentaris, P. (2016). Mindfulness and spirituality: Therapeutic perspectives. Person-Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies, 15(3), 235-244. DOI: 10.1080/14779757.2016.1180634
49. Lima, C. K. T., de Medeiros Carvalho, P. M., Lima, I. d. A. S., de Oliveira Nunes, J. V. A., Saraiva, J. S., de Souza, R. I., da Silva, C. G. L., and Neto, M. L. R. (2020). The emotional impact of Coronavirus 2019-nCoV (new Coronavirus disease). Psychiatry Research, 287, 112915.
50. Lykins, E. L. and Baer, R. A. (2009). Psychological functioning in a sample of long-term practitioners of mindfulness meditation. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 23(3), 226-241.
51. Malakoutikhah, A., Zakeri, M. A., Salehi Derakhtanjani, A., and Dehghan, M. (2021b). The psychometric properties of the relaxation/meditation/mindfulness (RMM) tracker t inventory in an Iranian population. Biomed. Res. Int., 1–10. doi: 10.1155/2021/2998916
52. Manav, A. İ., Atik, D., Coşkun, E., and Bozkurt, A. (2021). Yaşlılarda COVID-19 pandemi sürecinde bilinçli farkındalık, başa çıkma tutumları ve kişisel iyi oluş. Turkish Journal of Family Medicine and Primary Care, 15(1), 85-92. https://doi.org/10.21763/tjfmpc.808383
53. Matta, S., Rogova, N., and Luna-Cort ìes, G. (2022). Investigating tolerance of uncertainty, COVID-19 concern, and compliance with recommended behavior in four countries: the moderating role of mindfulness, trust in scientists, and power distance. Pers. Individ. Differ. 186, 111352. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.111352
54. Mayers, A. (2013). Introduction to statistics and SPSS in psychology. Pearson.
55. Myers, M. J. (2012). Examining the relationship between mindfulness, religious coping strategies, and emotion regulation [Doctoral Thesis]. Liberty University.
56. Ok, Ü. (2016), The Ok-Religious Attitude Scale (Islam): Introducing an Instrument Originated in Turkish for International Use. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 37(1), 55-67. Doi: 10.1080/13617672.2016.1141529
57. Ok, Ü. (2011). Dini tutum ölçeği: ölçek geliştirme ve geçerlik çalışması. Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(2), 528-549.
58. Oti-Boadi, M., Malm, E., and Dey, N.E.Y. et al. (2022). Fear of COVID-19: Psychological distress and coping among university students in Ghana. Curr Psychol 41, 8260–8270. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02267-5 Özmen, S., Özkan, O., Özer, Ö., and Yanardağ, M. Z. (2021). Investigation of COVID-19 fear, well-Being and life satisfaction in Turkish society. Social Work in Public Health, 36(2), 164–177. https://doi.org/10.1080/19371918.2021.1877589
59. Pargament, K. I. (2002). The bitter and the sweet: An evaluation of the costs and benefits of religiousness. Psychological Inquiry, 13(3), 168–181. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1303_02
60. Pargament, K. I., Feuille, M. and Burdzy, D. (2011). The Brief RCOPE: Current psychometric status of a short measure of religious coping. Religions. 2, 51–76.
61. Pargament, K. I., Koenig, H. G., Tarakeshwar, N., and Hahn, J. (2001). Religious struggle as a predictor of mortality among medically ill elderly patients: a 2-year longitudinal study. Archives of internal medicine, 161(15), 1881–1885. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.161.15.1881
62. Polizzi, C, Lynn, S, and Perry, A. (2020). Stress and coping in the time of COVID-19: Pathways to resilience and recovery. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 17(2), 59–62.
63. Preacher, K. J., and Kelley, K. (2011). Effect size measures for mediation models: Quantitative strategies for communicating indirect effects. Psychological Methods, 16(2), 93–115. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022658
64. Ramírez-Garduño, A., López, M.V., Guadarrama, R.G., and Lira-Mandujano, J. (2020). Dispositional mindfulness, spirituality and religion, and their role as protective factors of substance use in Mexican adolescents. Nova Scientia, 12.
65. Şanal-Karahan, F., and Bakalım, O. (2021). The mindfulness levels of adults during the Covid-19 pandemic: The role of solution focused thinking and valuing. Spiritual Psychology and Counseling, 6(1), 69–87. https://dx.doi.org/10.37898/spc.2021.6.1.131
66. Saricali, M., Satici, S. A., Satici, B., Gocet-Tekin, E., and Griffiths, M. D. (2020). Fear of COVID-19, mindfulness, humor, and hopelessness: A multiple mediation analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00419-5
67. Satıcı, B., Göçet-Tekin, E., Deniz, M. E., and Satıcı, S. A. (2020). Adaptation of the fear of COVID-19 scale: Its association with psychological distress and life satisfaction in Turkey. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 18(3). https://doi.org/ 10.1007/s11469-020-00294-0
68. Saud, M., Ashfaq, A., Abbas, A., and Mahmood, Q. K. (2020). Seeking social support through religion, psychological wellbeing and social capital: a global survey on coronavirus situational stress and coping strategies. EuropePMC.
69. Schuster, M.A., Stein, B.D., Jaycox, L.H., Collins, R.L., Marshall, G.N., and Elliott, M.N., et al. (2001). A national survey of stress reactions after the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks. N. Engl. J. Med. 345 (20), 1507–1512. https://doi:10.1056/NEJM200111153452024
70. Serafini, G., Parmigiani, B., Amerio, A., Aguglia, A., Sher, L., and Amore, M. (2020). The psychological impact of COVID-19 on the mental health in the general population. QJM: An International Journal of Medicine, 113(8), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.1093/qjmed/hcaa201
71. Söner, O. and Kartol, A. (2022). Covid-19 salgınına yakalanmayan yetişkinlerin bilinçli farkındalık, depresyon, anksiyete ve stres düzeyleri arasındaki ilişkiler. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 21(84), 1811-1825. doi: 10.17755/esosder.1120296
72. Spofford, J. L., Nevels, R. M., Gontkovsky, S. T., and Bell, T. P. (2014). Meditative practices predict spirituality but mindfulness does not predict alcohol use in African-American college students. Ment Health Relig Cult,17(4), 379-389. doi:10.1080/13674676.2013.810614
73. Sweeny, K., and Howell, J. L. (2017). Bracing later and coping better: Benefits of mindfulness during a stressful waiting period. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 43(10), 1399–1414. doi:10.1177/0146167217713490
74. Tran, U. S., Glück, T. M. and Nader, I. W. (2013). Investigating the Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ): Construction of a short form and evidence of a two-factor higher order structure of mindfulness. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(9), 951-965.
75. Turan, Y., Bostan, S. and Baynal, F. (2022). The Effect of Covid-19 pandemic on religion. Ordu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi, 12(1), 319-338. doi:10.48146/odusobiad.995556
76. Turgut, M. N. A., Ertürk, Ö. S., Karslı, F., and Şakiroğlu, M. (2020). A mediation variable in relation to perceived stress and adaptation to university life: Separation anxiety. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 35(2), 338-353. doi:10.16986/HUJE.20180440721
77. Vøllestad, J., Sivertsen, B. and Nielsen, G. H. (2011). Mindfulness based stress reduction for patients with anxiety disorders: Evolution in a randomized controlled trial. Behavior Research and Therapy, 49, 281-288.
78. Weis, R., Ray, S. D., and Cohen, T. A. (2021). Mindfulness as a way to cope with COVID-19-related stress and anxiety. Couns. Psychother. Res. 21, 8–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/capr.12375
79. World Health Organization, https://covid19.who.int/ (Last Date: 10.03.2022)
80. Yapıcı, A. (2016). Cinsiyete göre farklılaşan dindarlıklar ve kadınlarda dinsel yaşamın farklı görüntüleri. Dini Araştırmalar 19(49), 131-161. https://doi.org/10.15745/da.268813
81. Zakeri, M. A., Rafsanjanipoor, S. M. H., Sedri, N., Kahnooji, M., Rafsanjani, M. S., and Zakeri, M., et al. (2021d). Psychosocial status during the prevalence of COVID-19 disease: the comparison between healthcare workers and general population. Current Psychology 40(12), 6324–6332. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-01582-1