Emancipated Patriots: Will Authoritarian Legitimacy Survive Modernization in China?

Hasan Basri Biberoğlu

EN

Öz

Anahtar Kelimeler

Nationalism , Modernization , China , CCP , Political Legitimacy

Öz

Anahtar Kelimeler

Nationalism , Modernization , China , CCP , Political Legitimacy

Emancipated Patriots: Will Authoritarian Legitimacy Survive Modernization in China?

Abstract

Modernization was expected to lead to cognitive mobilization through improved living standards and access to education in China. Authoritarian legitimacy would weaken as deferential and traditional values were replaced by emancipative and liberal democratic values, which was expected to lead to the democratization of Chinese society. The endurance of authoritarian legitimacy and popular government support despite rapid modernization has contradicted expectations. This study examined the role of national identification in reconciling the outcomes of modernization with the authoritarian regime. The operationalization followed the dyadic approach where audiences were defined by their levels of national identification. Analyses involved mixed effect linear regression models where national identification levels had random effects while emancipative values, level of education, income and other control variables had fixed effects. It was found that indicators of legitimacy perceptions including performance satisfaction, democracy evaluation and trust in state institutions are positively associated with the intensity of national identification independently from controls.

Keywords

Nationalism , Modernization , China , CCP , Political Legitimacy

Kaynakça

Allaire, J., Xie, Y., McPherson, J., Luraschi, J., Atkins, A., Ushey, K., … Iannone, R. (2021). rmarkdown: Dynamic Documents for R. Retrieved from https://rmarkdown.rstudio.com
Bates, D., Mächler, M., Bolker, B., and Walker, S. (2015). Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67.
Beck, C. J. (2014). Reflections on the revolutionary wave in 2011. Theory and Society, 43, 197–223.
Beck, C. J. (2017). Revolutions: Robust Findings, Persistent Problems, and Promising Frontiers. States and Peoples in Conflict. Routledge, 168–183.
Beck, U. (2002). The Cosmopolitan Society and Its Enemies. Theory, Culture & Society, 19, 17–44.
Beck, U. and Sznaider, N. (2010). Unpacking cosmopolitanism for the social sciences: a research agenda. The British Journal of Sociology, 61, 381–403.
Beetham, D. (1991). The Legitimation of Power. London: Macmillan Education UK.
Bell, D. A. (2016). The China Model: Political Meritocracy and the Limits of Democracy. Princeton University Press.
Blanchette, J. and Medeiros, E. S. (2021). Is the Chinese Communist Party Ready for the Future? The Washington Quarterly, 44, 21–43.
Cantoni, D., Chen, Y., Yang, D. Y., Yuchtman, N. and Zhang, Y. J. (2017). Curriculum and Ideology. Journal of Political Economy, 125, 338–392.

Carlson, A. (2009). A flawed perspective: the limitations inherent within the study of Chinese nationalism. Nations and Nationalism, 15, 20–35.
Carlson, A. (2011). It Should Not Only Be about Nationalism: China’s Pluralistic National Identity and Its Implications for Chinese Foreign Relations. International Studies, 48, 223–236.
Claassen, C. (2020). Does Public Support Help Democracy Survive? American Journal of Political Science, 64, 118–134.
Cohen, J. (2013). Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences. Routledge.
Cunningham, E., Saich, T. and Turiel, J. (2020). Understanding CCP Resilience: Surveying Chinese Public Opinion Through Time. Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation. Retrieved from https://ash.harvard.edu/files/ash/files/final_policy_brief_7.6.2020.pdf
Darr, B. J. (2011). Nationalism and state legitimation in contemporary China (University of Iowa). University of Iowa.
Dickson, B. J. (2016). The Dictator’s Dilemma. Oxford University Press.
Downs, E. S. and Saunders, P. C. (1998). Legitimacy and the Limits of Nationalism: China and the Diaoyu Islands. International Security, 23, 114.
Easton, D. (1965). A Systems Analysis of Political Life. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Easton, D., Dennis, J. and Easton, S. (1969). Children in the Political System: Origins of Political Legitimacy. McGraw-Hill.
Ekström, M., Olsson, T. and Shehata, A. (2014). Spaces for public orientation? Longitudinal effects of Internet use in adolescence. Information, Communication & Society, 17, 168–183.
Fairbrother, G. P. (2008). Rethinking Hegemony and Resistance to Political Education in Mainland China and Hong Kong. Comparative Education Review, 52, 381–412.
Falk, R. and Miller, N. (1992). A Primer for Soft Modeling. The University of Akron Press: Akron, OH.
Frederick, C. and Knowles, J. E. (2020). merTools: Tools for Analyzing Mixed Effect Regression Models. Retrieved from R package version 0.5.2. website: https://cran.r-project.org/package=merTools
Gilley, B. (2004). China’s democratic future: How it will happen and where it will lead. Columbia University Press.
Gilley, B. (2006). The meaning and measure of state legitimacy: Results for 72 countries. European Journal of Political Research, 45, 499–525.
Gilley, B. (2009). The Right To Rule: How States Win and Lose Legitimacy (Illustrated edition). Columbia University Press.
Gilley, B. (2012). State legitimacy: An updated dataset for 52 countries. European Journal of Political Research, 51, 693–699.
Gries, P. H. (2004). Popular nationalism and state legitimation. Asia’s Transformations. State and Society in 21st Century China: Crisis, Contention and Legitimation. Taylor & Francis, 180–194.
Gries, P. H. and Sanders, M. (2016). How Socialization Shapes Chinese Views of America and the World. Japanese Journal of Political Science, 17, 1–21.
Guriev, S. and Treisman, D. (2019). Informational Autocrats. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 33, 100–127.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J. and Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Pearson.
Hancock, T. (2019). Xi Jinping’s China: Why Entrepreneurs Feel Like Second-class Citizens. Financial Times, 12.
He, Y. (2007). History, Chinese Nationalism and the Emerging Sino–Japanese Conflict. Journal of Contemporary China, 16, 1–24.
Hoffmann, R. and Larner, J. (2013). The Demography of Chinese Nationalism: A Field-Experimental Approach. The China Quarterly, 189–204.
Hong, S. and Lynn, H. S. (2020). Accuracy of random-forest-based imputation of missing data in the presence of non-normality, non-linearity, and interaction. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 20, 199.
Huhe, N., Tang, M. and Chen, J. (2018). Creating Democratic Citizens: Political Effects of the Internet in China. Political Research Quarterly, 71, 757–771.
Hui, W. (1998). Contemporary Chinese Thought and the Question of Modernity (R. E. Karl, Trans.). Social Text, 9.
Hyman, H. H. (1959). Political Socialization: A Study in the Psychology of Political Behavior. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press.
Inglehart, R. and Baker, W. E. (2000). Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values. American Sociological Review, 65, 19.
Inglehart, R., Haerpfer, A. M., Welzel, C., Kizilova, K., Diez-Medrano, J., Lagos, M., … Puranen, B. (2022). World Values Survey: Round Seven – Country-Pooled Datafile Version 3.0. Madrid, Spain & Vienna, Austria: JD Systems Institute & WVSA Secretariat.
Inglehart, R. and Welzel, C. (2001). Modernization, Cultural Change, and Democracy. Cambridge University Press.
Inglehart, R. and Welzel, C. (2010). Changing Mass Priorities: The Link Between Modernization and Democracy. Perspectives on Politics, 8, 551–567.
Jackson, J. (2018). Norms, Normativity, and the Legitimacy of Justice Institutions: International Perspectives. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 14, 145–165.
Ji, C. and Jiang, J. (2020). Enlightened One-Party Rule? Ideological Differences between Chinese Communist Party Members and the Mass Public. Political Research Quarterly, 73, 651–666.
Jiang, Z. (1991). General Secretary Jiang Zemin’s Letter to Comrades Li Tieying and He Dongchang. Chinese Education & Society, 32, 52–54.
Johnston, A. I. (2017). Is Chinese Nationalism Rising? Evidence from Beijing. International Security, 41, 7–43.
Johnston, A. I. and Stockmann, D. (2018). 6. Chinese Attitudes toward the United States and Americans. P. J. Katzenstein and R. O. Keohane (Eds.). Anti-Americanisms in World Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 157–195.
Kirsch, H. and Welzel, C. (2019). Democracy Misunderstood: Authoritarian Notions of Democracy around the Globe. Social Forces, 98, 59–92.
Kruse, S., Ravlik, M. and Welzel, C. (2019). Democracy Confused: When People Mistake the Absence of Democracy for Its Presence. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 50, 315–335.
Kumar, K. (2020). “modernization.” Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/topic/modernization
Kuran, T. (1987). Preference Falsification, Policy Continuity and Collective Conservatism. The Economic Journal, 97, 642.
Kuran, T. (1991). Now out of Never: The Element of Surprise in the East European Revolution of 1989. World Politics, 44, 7–48.
Kurzman, C. (2004). The Unthinkable Revolution in Iran (Reprint). Harvard University Press.
Kuznetsova, A., Brockhoff, P. B. and Christensen, R. H. B. (2017). lmerTest Package: Tests in Linear Mixed Effects Models. Journal of Statistical Software, 82.
Lagerkvist, J. (2005). The Rise of Online Public Opinion in the People’s Republic of China. China: An International Journal, 3, 119–130.
Levi, M. (1988). Of Rule and Revenue. University of California Press.
Levi, M. and Sacks, A. (2009). Legitimating beliefs: Sources and indicators. Regulation & Governance, 3, 311–333.
Levi, M., Sacks, A. and Tyler, T. (2009). Conceptualizing Legitimacy, Measuring Legitimating Beliefs. American Behavioral Scientist, 53, 354–375.
Lipset, S. M. (1959). Some Social Requisites of Democracy: Economic Development and Political Legitimacy. American Political Science Review, 53, 69–105.
Liu, C. and Ma, X. (2018). Popular Threats and Nationalistic Propaganda: Political Logic of China’s Patriotic Campaign. Security Studies, 27, 633–664.
Mannheim, K. (1952). The Problem of Generations. P. Kecskemeti (Ed.). Essays on the Sociology of Knowledge. Routledge.
Nakagawa, S. and Schielzeth, H. (2013). A general and simple method for obtaining R 2 from generalized linear mixed-effects models. Methods in Ecology and Evolution, 4, 133–142.
Nathan, A. J. (2016). The Puzzle of the Chinese Middle Class. Journal of Democracy, 27, 5–19.
Nathan, A. J. (2020a). Culture, complicity, and identity: Why public support for the CCP remains high after 2020. Party Watch Annual Report, 4–12.
Nathan, A. J. (2020b). The Puzzle of Authoritarian Legitimacy. Journal of Democracy, 31, 158–168.
Nisbet, E. C., Stoycheff, E. and Pearce, K. E. (2012). Internet Use and Democratic Demands: A Multinational, Multilevel Model of Internet Use and Citizen Attitudes About Democracy. Journal of Communication, 62, 249–265.
Nunnally, J. and Bernstein, I. H. (1967). Pychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Pan, J. and Xu, Y. (2018). China’s Ideological Spectrum. The Journal of Politics, 80, 254–273.
Pei, M. (2021). China: Totalitarianism’s Long Shadow. Journal of Democracy, 32, 5–21.
Qian, L., Xu, B. and Chen, D. (2016). Does History Education Promote Nationalism in China? A ‘Limited Effect’ Explanation. Journal of Contemporary China, 26, 199–212.
R Core Team. (2022). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. Vienna, Austria: R Foundation for Statistical Computing.
Repucci, S. and Slipowitz, A. (2022). Freedom in the World 2022: The Global Expansion of Authoritarian Rule.
Risse, T. and Stollenwerk, E. (2018). Legitimacy in Areas of Limited Statehood. Annual Review of Political Science, 21, 403–418.
Rowen, H. S. (2007). When Will the Chinese People Be Free? Journal of Democracy, 18, 38–52.
RStudio Team. (2022). RStudio: Integrated Development Environment for R. Boston, MA: RStudio, PBC.
Ryder, N. B. (1965). The Cohort as a Concept in the Study of Social Change. American Sociological Review, 30, 843.
Schoon, E. W. (2022). Operationalizing Legitimacy. American Sociological Review.
Sinkkonen, E. (2013). Nationalism, Patriotism and Foreign Policy Attitudes among Chinese University Students. The China Quarterly, 216, 1045–1063.
Skocpol, T. (1979). States and Social Revolutions. Cambridge University Press.
Song, Y. and Miao, H. (2014). Implications for E-Media, the Press, Government, and Politics in China. C. de Landtsheer, R. Farnen and D. B. German (Eds.). E-Political Socialization, the Press and Politics. Peter Lang D., 341–362.
Stekhoven, D. J. (2013). missForest: Nonparametric Missing Value Imputation using Random Forest.
Stekhoven, D. J. and Buhlmann, P. (2012). MissForest--non-parametric missing value imputation for mixed-type data. Bioinformatics, 28, 112–118.
Suchman, M. C. (1995). Managing Legitimacy: Strategic and Institutional Approaches. The Academy of Management Review, 20, 571.
Taneja, H. and Wu, A. X. (2014). Does the Great Firewall Really Isolate the Chinese? Integrating Access Blockage With Cultural Factors to Explain Web User Behavior. The Information Society, 30, 297–309.
Tang, F. and Ishwaran, H. (2017). Random forest missing data algorithms. Statistical Analysis and Data Mining: The ASA Data Science Journal, 10, 363–377.
Tang, M. and Huhe, N. (2020). Parsing the Effect of the Internet on Regime Support in China. Government and Opposition, 55, 130–146.
Tang, W. (2016). Populist Authoritarianism. Oxford University Press.
Tang, W. and Darr, B. (2012). Chinese Nationalism and its Political and Social Origins. Journal of Contemporary China, 21, 811–826.
Tavakol, M. and Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International Journal of Medical Education, 2, 53–55.
Tsai, L. L., Trinh, M. and Liu, S. (2022). What Makes Anticorruption Punishment Popular? Individual-Level Evidence from China. The Journal of Politics, 84, 602–606.
Tsang, S. and Cheung, O. (2022). Has Xi Jinping made China’s political system more resilient and enduring? Third World Quarterly, 43, 225–243.
Tyler, T. R. (2005). Psychological Perspectives on Legitimacy and Legitimation. Annual Review of Psychology, 57, 375–400.
Tyler, T. R. (2006). Why People Obey the Law. Princeton University Press.
Voo, J., Hemani, I., Jones, S., DeSombre, W., Cassidy, D. and Schwarzenbach, A. (2020). National Cyber Power Index 2020.
Wang, Zheng. (2008). National Humiliation, History Education, and the Politics of Historical Memory: Patriotic Education Campaign in China. International Studies Quarterly, 52, 783–806.
Wang, Zhengxu and You, Y. (2016). The arrival of critical citizens: decline of political trust and shifting public priorities in China. International Review of Sociology, 26, 105–124.
Wasserman, S. and Faust, K. (1994). Dyads. Social Network Analysis. Cambridge University Press, 505–555.
Weber, M. (1946). Politics as a Vocation. H. H. Gerth and W. Mills (Eds.). From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology. New York: Oxford University Press, 77–128.
Welzel, C. (2006). Democratization as an emancipative process: The neglected role of mass motivations. European Journal of Political Research, 45, 871–896.
Welzel, C. (2007). Are Levels of Democracy Affected by Mass Attitudes? Testing Attainment and Sustainment Effects on Democracy. International Political Science Review, 28, 397–424.
Welzel, C. (2011). The Asian Values Thesis Revisited: Evidence from the World Values Surveys. Japanese Journal of Political Science, 12, 1–31.
Welzel, C. (2012). The Myth of Asian Exceptionalism. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 43, 1039–1054.
Welzel, C. (2013). Freedom Rising. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Welzel, C. (2021). Why The Future Is Democratic. Journal of Democracy, 32, 132–144.
Welzel, C. and Inglehart, R. (2006). Emancipative values and democracy: Response to Hadenius and Teorell. Studies in Comparative International Development, 41, 74–94.
Welzel, C. and Inglehart, R. (2010). Agency, Values, and Well-being: A Human Development Model. Social Indicators Research, 97, 43–63.
Welzel, C., Inglehart, R. and Klingemann, H. D. (2003). The theory of human development: A cross-cultural analysis. European Journal of Political Research, 42, 341–379.
Welzel, C., Kruse, S. and Brunkert, L. (2022). Why the Future Is (Still) Democratic. Journal of Democracy, 33, 156–162.
Wickham, H. (2016). ggplot2: Elegant Graphics for Data Analysis. New York: Springer-Verlag.
Wickham, H., François, R., Henry, L. and Müller, K. (2021). dplyr: A Grammar of Data Manipulation.
Woods, J. S. and Dickson, B. J. (2017). Victims and Patriots: Disaggregating Nationalism in Urban China. Journal of Contemporary China, 26, 167–182.
World Bank, W. D. I. (2021). GDP per capita (current US$). Retrieved from https://databank.worldbank.org/source/world-development-indicators/
World Values Survey Association. (2020). World Values Survey. Retrieved from https://www.worldvaluessurvey.org/
Wucherpfennig, J. and Deutsch, F. (2009). Modernization and Democracy: Theories and Evidence Revisited. Living Reviews in Democracy, 1, 1–9.
Xiaolin, D. (2017). Unanswered Questions: Why We may be Wrong about Chinese Nationalism and its Foreign Policy Implications. Journal of Contemporary China, 26, 886–900.
Xie, Y. (2014). knitr: A Comprehensive Tool for Reproducible Research in R. V. Stodden, F. Leisch and R. D. Peng (Eds.). Implementing Reproducible Computational Research. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Xie, Y. (2015). Dynamic Documents with R and knitr (2nd ed.). Chapman and Hall/CRC.
Xie, Y. (2021). knitr: A General-Purpose Package for Dynamic Report Generation in R.
Xie, Y., Allaire, J. and Grolemund, G. (2018). R Markdown: The Definitive Guide. Chapman and Hall/CRC. Retrieved from https://bookdown.org/yihui/rmarkdown
Xie, Y., Dervieux, C. and Riederer, E. (2020). R Markdown Cookbook. Chapman and Hall/CRC.
You, Y. and Wang, Z. (2020). The Internet, political trust, and regime types: a cross-national and multilevel analysis. Japanese Journal of Political Science, 21, 68–89.
Zhang, T. and Haemin, J. (2021). Oppose Autocracy without Support for Democracy: A Study of Non-democratic Critics in China.
Zhao, S. (1998). A State-Led Nationalism: The Patriotic Education Campaign in Post-Tiananmen China. Communist and Post-Communist Studies, 31, 287–302.
Zhao, S. (2000). Chinese Nationalism and Its International Orientations. Political Science Quarterly, 115, 1–33.
Zhao, S. (2005). China’s pragmatic nationalism: Is it manageable? The Washington Quarterly, 29, 131–144.
Zheng, Y. and Wu, G. (2005). Information Technology, Public Space, and Collective Action in China. Comparative Political Studies, 38, 507–536.
Zhong, Y. (1996). Legitimacy crisis and legitimation in China. Journal of Contemporary Asia, 26, 201–220.
Zhong, Y. and Chen, Y. (2013). Regime Support in Urban China. Asian Survey, 53, 369–392.
Zhou, M. and Wang, H. (2017). Anti-Japanese Sentiment among Chinese University Students: The Influence of Contemporary Nationalist Propaganda. Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 46, 167–185.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil

İngilizce

Konular

-

Bölüm

Araştırma Makalesi

Yazarlar

Hasan Basri Biberoğlu ^*
0000-0001-7242-3289
Türkiye

Yayımlanma Tarihi

30 Aralık 2022

Gönderilme Tarihi

30 Nisan 2022

Kabul Tarihi

28 Temmuz 2022

Yayımlandığı Sayı

Yıl 2022 Cilt: 1 Sayı: 2

IZ

https://izlik.org/JA32TT68XU

APA

Biberoğlu, H. B. (2022). Emancipated Patriots: Will Authoritarian Legitimacy Survive Modernization in China? Bölge Çalışmaları Dergisi, 1(2), 32-57. https://izlik.org/JA32TT68XU

Öz

Anahtar Kelimeler

Öz

Öz

Anahtar Kelimeler

Emancipated Patriots: Will Authoritarian Legitimacy Survive Modernization in China?

Abstract

Keywords

Kaynakça

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil

Konular

Bölüm

Yazarlar

Yayımlanma Tarihi

Gönderilme Tarihi

Kabul Tarihi

Yayımlandığı Sayı

IZ

Kaynak Göster